Af,A£c. 


^^C- 

6^?^^ 


-5 


OUTLINES  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY 


FOR  THE  USE  OF  THE   MIDDLE  CLASS 
IN  THE   THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY   IN  PRINCETON. 


JAMES  C    MOFFAT, 

HELENA   PUOFESSOR    OF   CHURCH    HISTORY. 


I^oni  the  birth  of  Christ  to  A.   I),   1648. 


PRINCETON  : 

CHARLES    S.    ROBINSON,    PRINTER. 

1877. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year   1875,  by 

James  C.  Moffat, 
in  the  office  of  the   Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


* 


OUTLINES  OF  CHURCH  HISTORY. 


RELIGIOUS    STATE    OF    THE    WORLD    AT    THE     APPEARANCE     OF 

CHRIST. 

Jesus,  who  is  called  the  Christ,  was  born  in  Judea, 
shortly  before  the  death  of  Herod  I.,  which  took  place 
between  March  13th  and  April  4th,  in  the  year  750  U.  C. 
The  birth  of  Jesiis  could  not  have  been  later  than  two 
or  three  months  before  that  event ;  it  may  have  been 
earlier  by  one,  or  even  two  years.  Our  common  era 
assumes  it  to  have  occurred  in  754  U.  C,  at  least  four 
years  too  late.     The  da}^  of  his  birth  is  not  determined. 

At  that  epoch,  the  state  of  religion  in  the  west  of 
Asia  and  Europe  was  one  of  great  depression.  Rational- 
ism had  separated  between  faith  and  intelligence;  east 
of  the  Indus  it  had  constructed  two  great  philosophical 
religions  ;  west  of  the  Tigris  it  had  set  up  philosophy  as  a 
substitute  for  religion,  and  carried  the  convictions  of  the 
o-reater  number  of  the  educated.  Confucianism  and 
Buddhism,  as  religions,  were  accepted  by  vast  multi- 
tudes; Greek  philosophy  did  not  profess  to  be  religion, 
and  scorned  the  ignorant  populace.  Between  the  Indus 
and  the  Tigris  ruled  the  semi-barbarous  Parthian,  main- 
taining a  degenerate  Magism.  Avestan  monotheism  was 
almost  buried  out  of  sight  under  that  domination.  Tlie 
pure  faith  of  the  Hebrews  was  contined  to  few. 

Everywhere  the  religious  condition  of  the  multitudes, 
to  whom  philosophy  or  philosophical  religion  was  inac- 
cessible, was  exceedingly  degraded. 

All  the  countries  lying  around  the  Mediterranean 
were  under  one  ruler.  Rome  had  within  the  preceding 
half  century  united  the  ruder  west  of  Europe  to  the 
decaying  civilizations  on  the  eastern  coasts.  Parthian 
barbarism  lay  as  a  barrier  between  that  new  empire  and 
the  culture  of  the  further  east. 


Civilization  in  China  and  India  was  bound  up  in- their 
great  philosophical  religions  ;  in  the  west  it  reposed  upon 
philosophy;  while  good  order  and  security  were  main- 
tained by  Roman  legislation  and  arms. 

Great  facilities  for  the  spread  of  knowledge  were 
furnished  by  Roman  dominion;  by  the  protection  it 
furnished,  the  freedom  of  inter-communication  which  it 
promoted,  by  one  common  language  of  business,  and  one 
of  polite  literature.  The  wisdom  and  culture  of  the 
east  were  easily,  through  the  common  heart  of  Rome, 
extended  to  the  strong  but  rugged  nations  of  the  west. 
And  the  government  of  that  vast  dominion  was,  at  the 
time  of  the  Saviour's  birth,  in  the  hands  of  one  man, 
whose  policy  was  peace. 

But  there  was  little  hope  or  enterprise  among  the 
nations.  Their  spirit  had  been  crushed.  Among  the 
wisest  heathen  a  deep  despondency  prevailed,  a  sense  of 
want,  which  no  earthly  possessions  could  fill. 

Practical  morals  were  at  that  time  among  the  heathen 
exceedingly  base,  and  basest  in  the  highest  places  of 
society;  not  because  men  did  not  know  the  difterence 
between  right  and  wrong,  but  because  they  were  with- 
out sufficientpersuasives  to  righteousness.  The  example 
of  their  gods  could  be  adduced-  to  justify  or  palliate 
any  vice  or  crime.  Their  great  want  was  the  want  of  a 
Saviour. 

The  Jews  were  still  in  possession  of  their  own  land, 
but  subjects  of  the  Roman  Empire,  to  which  they  had 
recently  been  annexed.  Jews  of  pure  descent  occupied 
dhielly  the  southern  part  of  the  country  ;  Samaritans  the 
middle,  and  Galileans  the  north,  both  being  of  mixed 
descent;  and  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan,  divided  into 
Iturea,  Trachonites,  and  Perea  was  also  held  by  a  hetero- 
geneous population. 

Pure  Jews  were  of  three  religious  sects ;  Pharisees, 
who  were  ritualists ;  Sadducees,  rationalists ;  and  Essenes, 
who  were  Ascetics.  Moreover,  Jews  were  then  resident 
in  almost  every  nation  :  and  in  their  synagogues  the 
scriptures  of  promise  were  read.  Among  both  Jews  and 
gentiles  there  prevailed  an  expectancy  of  some  great  per- 
sonage about  to  appear  with  blessing  to  mankind. 


CHRIST, 

The  Saviour  was  of  pure  Hebrew  genealogy,  but  made 
his  residence  chiefly  among  the  half  gentiles  of  Galilee. 
His  public  ministry  commenced  with  his  baptism,  when 
he  was  about  thirty  3'ears  of  age,  and  extended  to  about 
three  years  and  three  months. 

The  social  condition  in  wliieh  he  w^as  born  was  lowly, 
and  yet,  as  both  his  mother  and  foster  father  were  de- 
scended of  the  ancient  Kings  of  Judea,  he  w^as  a  son  of 
David  according  to  the  flesh. 

Historically,  Christ  appeared  as  a  teacher,  in  the 
crowning  period  of  ancient  learning  and  culture.  Some 
things  in  his  teaching  were  peculiar  to  himself. 

1.  He  did  not  present  what  he  taught  as  conclusions 
which  he  had  arrived  at ;  neither  as  things  discovered, 
nor  as  certified  by  thinking  in  reference  to  them,  but 
purely  as  revelation. 

2.  He  did  not  reveal  as  having  learned  from  some 
higher  intelligence,  but  as  speaking  of  his  own  original 
knowledge. 

3.  His  method  was  of  great  breadth,  calling  in  the 
exercise  of  all  faculties  of  the  human  mind,  and  never 
seeking  to  simplify  by  sinking  one  faculty  in  another. 

4.  His  instructions  have  eminently  the  mark  of  holi- 
ness. 

II.  As  to  their  substance,  his  lessons  contained  intel- 
ligence from  the  councils  of  God;  touching  the  nature 
of  God's  existence,  his  designs  for  man,  and  some  of  his 
dealings  with  higher  beings. 

2.  The}'  laid  open  the  whole  plan  of  redemption  ; 
and  the  love  of  God  to  man. 

3.  They  taught  the  purest,  most  summary  and  most 
eflectual  principles  of  morals  ;  and  the  way  whereby  man 
is  to  be  accepted  as  holy  with  God  :  and  of  Jesus  him- 
self that  he  was  the  sacrifice  for  sin,  the  mediator  of  a 
new  covenant  and  the  eternal  Son  of  God. 

III.  Jesus  addressed  the  understanding  of  men,  but 
demanded  of  his  followers  first  of  all  an  act  of  the  heart; 
namely,  that  they  should  trust  in  him  and  love  hira  and 
one  another.     And  his  teacliing  has  been    accompanied 


6 

with  a  power  to  go  directly  to  the  heart  and  change  the 
state  of  its  affections.  Thereby,  notwithstanding  its 
depth  and  height,  it  is  adapted  to  all  grades  of  capacity. 

IV.  The  operation  and  effect  of  his  teaching  are 
found  in  practice  to  be  what  he  said  they  would  be. 

V.  His  miracles,  his  death  and  resurrection  were 
essential  to  his  instructions,  as  well  as  parts  of  what  he 
came  to  do,  and  all,  taken  together,  make  a  consistent 
whole,  which  is  the  Gospel. 

His  last  commission  to  his  discijdes  was  to  teach  all 
nations.  The  progress  of  that  teaching  among  men  is 
the  history  of  the  church. 

VI.  Christ  presented  himself  as  the  subject  of  his 
Gospel,  and  the  teaclier  of  its  doctrines  ;  but  assigned  to 
his  disciples,  under  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  task  of  organiz- 
ing their  own  society— which  is  the  church.  Of  that 
the  beginning  was  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the 
day  of  the  first  Pentecost  after  the  ascension. 

CHURCH  HISTORY. 

The  History  of  the  Christian  Church  since  that  date 
is  divided,  in  view  of  its  own  progress,  into  four  great 
periods.  The  first  is  that  of  Apostolic  history,  in  the 
end  of  which  the  church  ceased  to  enjoy  the  preseiice 
and  counsels  of  inspired  men  who  had  seen  the  Lord. 
Second  is  that  which  ended  in  conferring  upon  Christians 
external  supremacy  in  the  Roman  empire,  extending 
from  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  until 
the  year  324  A,  D.  The  tliird  is  that  of  union  with  the 
state,  and  bondage  to  the  rule  of  legalism  within  the 
pale  of  the  church,  and  extends  until  the  first  successful 
efforts  for  liberation,  in  and  about  1517  A.  D. 

This  long  period  contains  others  of  great  importance, 
as  that  which  was  marked  by  the  Nestorian  schism  in 
431  A.  D.;  that  which  determined  the  separation  of  the 
great  group  of  Monophysite  churches,  in  553  A.  D.;  the 
terrible  loss  to  the  churches  of  the  east  and  south  in  the 
first  Mohammedan  invasions,  which  began  in  632  A.  D., 
and  the  separation  of  the  church  into  the  eastern  and 
western  in  the  year  1054. 


The  fourth  great  period  is  tliat  of  the  generalconflict 
for  and  against  the  free  publication  of  the  Gospel,  and 
its  sole  authority  in  the  church  ;  which  is  still  going  on. 

Upon  more  minute  inspection,  we  shall  lind  it  neces- 
sary to  divide  each  of  our  periods  into  several  subordi- 
nate sections,  on  the  same  principle,  but  drawn  more 
closely  from  operations  of  the  inner  life  of  Christians. 

FIRST  PERIOD. 
FROM  PENTECOST,  A.  D.  29  TO  A.  D.  100. 

Apostolic  History  consists  of  live  sections,  marked 
by  their  respective  steps  of  progress  in  the  publication 
of  the  Gospel;  namely,  organization  of  the  church  in 
Jerusalem;  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the  Samaritans 
and  elsewhere  in  Palestine  ;  first  mission  to  the  gentiles  ; 
the  overthrow  of  Jewish  nationality,  and  the  completing 
of  the  sacred  canon,  and  death  of  the  last  inspired 
teacher. 


The  first  began  with  the  day  of  Pentecost  and  closed 
with  the  death  of  Stephen.  In  it  were  witnessed  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  tlie  transforming  effect 
upon  the  character  of  the  Apostles,  the  sermon  of  Peter, 
with  the  addition  of  three  thousand  to  the  number  of 
the  b-lievers  in  that  one  day.  All  the  Christians  resid- 
ing at  that  time  in  Jerusalem  formed  one  society, 
and  had  all  things  in  common.  At  first  their  temporal 
and  religious  affairs  were  conducted  by  the  apostles  ;  by 
the  appointment  of  deacons  the  apostolic  form  of  the 
church  was  completed.  The  Christians  of  that  time 
were  Jews,  or  Jewish  proselytes,  and  thought  that  the 
Gospel  belonged  only  to  the  children  of  Abraham.  The 
aposles  were  endowed  with  supernatural  gifts  for  the 
planting  of  the  church  in  its  worship,  government  and 
instruction. 

For  a  meeting  of  the  whole,  they  used  the  court  of 
the  temple,  but  they  also  met  in   separate   bodies,   as 
occasion  required,  in  synagogues  and  in  private  houses  ; 
and  the  synagogue,  not  the  temple,  furnished   the  basis 


of  their  worship  and  government.  In  the  sense  of  a 
common  organization,  tiiey  were  one  church;  in  the 
sense  of  congregations,  they  were  sometimes  several. 
Provision  for  the  poor  among  them  was  accepted  as  a 
duty,  and  those  who  had  prcjperty  contributed  freely  to 
the  wants  of  the  rest. 

Enemies  arrayed  themselves  against  the  church  from 
the  first  ;  Sadducees  because  they  preached  the  resur- 
rection, and  Pharisees  on  the  ground  of  disorder. 
The  caution  and  tolerance  recommended  by  Gamaliel 
prevailed  for  a  time  in  the  council.  But  persecution 
broke  out  again  with  great  severity  upon  the  death  of 
Stephen,  and  the  members  of  the  church  were  scattered 
abroad. 

2. 

The  dispersion  was  at  first  through  the  regions  of 
Judea  and  Samaria,  but  very  sooti  it  extended  also  to 
the  Gentiles.  The  apostles  lingered  longer  in  Jerusalem, 
making  that  city  the  centre  of  operations.  Philip,  the 
evangelist,  was  the  first  to  cai'ry  the  Gospel  to  Samari- 
tans. From  Jerusalem  two  apostles  Peter  and  John, 
were  sent  to  inquire  into  that  work,  and  being  satisfied 
with  the  reality  of  the  conversions,  rejoiced  together  with 
their  follow  apostles,  in  such  a  way  as  shows  that  the 
fact  was  more  than  they  had  expected.  Peter's  experi- 
ence in  the  case  of  Cornelius  prepared  them  for  preach- 
ing the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  The  Roman  Centurion 
was  received  into  the  church  by  profession  of  faith  and 
biiptism.  Acts  X.  44-48  ;  xv.  6-11.  A  new  apostle  was 
next  called  for  the  express  purpose  of  preasliing  to  the 
Gentiles.  Paul's  conversion  occurred  in  or  about  the 
year  37.  After  having  preached  in  Damascus,  he  spent 
S(ime  time  in  Arabia,  visited  Jerusalem,  and  returned  to 
his  native  city  Tarsus. 

Meanwhile  some  of  the  dispersed  came  to  Antioch 
and  preached  to  the  Greeks,  and  a  great  number  believed. 
Hearing  of  that,  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  sent  Barna- 
bas to  visit  Antioch,  who  when  he  had  come  and  had 
seen  the  grace  of  God  was  greatly  rejoiced  ;  and  going 
to  Tarsus  he  found  Paul,  and  brought  him  to  Antioch, 


9 

where  they  both  labored  for  a  whole  year.  In  that  orpeat 
city,  where  strict  Jews  with  their  Hellenistic  brethren, 
and  Heathen,  with  proselytes  to  Judaism,  lived  in  close 
neigjhborhood,  the  views  of  the  disciples  were  further 
enlightened  touching  the  liberality  of  the  Gospel.  Con- 
sequently Antioch  was  the  place  where  the  disciples  were 
first  regarded  as  other  than  a  Hebrew  sect,  and  first 
received  the  name  Christian. 

The  church  which  in  the  first  of  these  two  brief 
periods  was  but  one  community,  was  in  the  second  dis- 
persed and  formed  into  many.  Jewish  exclusiveness  in 
the  minds  of  the  disciples  was  overcome  so  far  as  to 
admit  of  preaching  the  Gospel  to  Samaritans  and  Gen- 
tiles. But  all  were  etill  expected  to  submit  to  Jewish 
rites. 

The  rapid  increase  of  the  number  of  believers  was  a 
fact  which  most  deeply  impressed  the  writer  of  their 
early  history.     He  recurs  to  it  in  different  connections. 

The  creed  of  the  church  was  contained  in  the  simple 
apostolic  injunction.  Believe  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
and  thou  shalt  be  saved. 

It  was  in  the  latter  years  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
that  the  church  was  formed  in  Jerusalem.  The  begin- 
ning of  its  dispersion  took  place  perhaps  in  the  22nd 
year  of  that  reign.  The  second  period  lasted  through 
the  reign  of  Caligula  and  to  the  fourth  year  of  Claudius. 
In  41  Herod  Agrippa  was  elevated  by  Claudius  to  be 
king  of  all  Palestine.  He  died  in  44  A.  D.  The  country 
was  again  treated  as  a  province,  and  governed  from 
Rome. 


In  the  history  of  the  apostolic  church  the  third  sec- 
tion extends  from  the  first  regularly  appointed  mission 
to  the  Gentiles,  about  the  year  45,  until  the  arrival  of 
Paul  at  Rome,  in  A.  D.  61."^ 

After  the  Jews,  the  first  opponents  whom  Christianity 
met  in  argument  were  the  Greeks,  keen  and  logical,  and 
it  became  of  importance  for  its  preachers  to  be  versed  in 
that  learning  from  which  those  opponents  drew  their 
arguments.     Jews  alone  were  yet  systematically  arrayed 


10 

ao;aiiist  the  gospel.  Antioch  fiiniislied  a  refuge  for  the 
disciples  where  the\-  were  safe  from  that  persecution,  and 
a  favorable  center  of  operations  among  the  heathen.  A 
short  time  subsequent  to  the  year  44,  most  likelv  in  45 
A.  D.  a  number  of  |)ious  men,  prophets  and  teachers 
residing  at  Antioch,  as  they  ministered  to  the  Lord  and 
fasted,  were  directed. by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  set  apart  Bar- 
nabas and  Saul  to  the  work  of  missions  among  the  Gen- 
tiles. So  when  they  had  fasted  and  prayed  and  laid  their 
hands  upon  the  missionaries,  they  sent  them  away.  The 
gospel  was  preached  in  every  direction  from  Jerusalem; 
but  this,  the  most  important  of  apostolic  missions  was 
addressed  to  the  heart  of  the  liighest  civilization. 

The  missionaries  were  well  qualified  for  their  task. 
Both  of  pure  Hebrew  blood,  they  w^ere  both  natives  of 
Greek  countries,  and  had  enjoyed  both  Greek  and  Hebrew 
culture.  From  Antioch  they  proceeded  to  Seleucia,  took 
ship  to  Cyprus,  visited  the  cities  Salamis  and  Paphos, 
in  the  latter  of  which  the  Roman  Proconsul,  Sergius 
Paulus  was  converted,  and  tlie  name  of  the  apostle  ceases- 
to  be  Saul,  and  becomes  Paul.  Thence  they  sailed  to  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Here  John  Mark  who  had  attended 
them  from  Antioch  forsook  them  and  returned.  Land- 
ing at  Perga  they  proceeded  through  Pamphylia  to 
Antioch  in  Pisidia.  Thence  eastward  to  Iconium,  tlien 
to  Lystra  and  to  Derbe.  At  Lystra  they  with  difficulty 
restrained  the  people  from  offering  them  worship,  until 
the  Jews  stirred  up  opposition  to  them.  Froin  Derbe 
ihey  retraced  their  steps  to  Lystia,  Iconium,  Antioch, 
Perga,  and  Atalia,  and  thence  to  Antioch  in  Syria. 
There  they  reported  to  the  church  what  God  had  wrought 
by  them  ;   and  abode  a  long  time  with  the  disciples. 

Then  arose  a  controversy  about  what  was  to  be  done 
with  heathen  converts,  whether  it  was,  or  was  not  neces- 
sary for  them  to  be  circumcised  and  keep  the  huv  of 
Moses.  As  some  persons  from  Judtea  disturbed  the 
church  in  Antioch  by  arguing  the  affirmative  of  that 
question,  it  was  resolved  that  Paul  and  Barnabas  and 
certain  others  should  go  to  Jerusalem  and  consult  the 
apostles  and  elders.  In  Jerusalem  the  controversy  was 
also  warm.     Certain    Pharisees  who  had  become   chris- 


y 


11 

tian  were  very  earnest  for  retaining  the  law.  In  the 
meeting  which  took  place  there  was  difference  of  opinion  ; 
but  afrer  Paul  and  Barnabas  and  Peter  had  spoken,  re- 
counting what  God  liad  done  for  Gentiles  through  them, 
James  proposed  a  resolution  which  was  agreed  to,  tjjat 
Gentile  converts  should  abstain  from  meats  offered  to 
idols,  from  blood,  from  things  strangled  and  from  forni- 
cation, and  that  beyond  this  no  other  burden  should  be 
imposed  upon  them.  Silas  and  Judas  Barsabas  were 
appointed  to  accompany  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Antioch, 
and  communicate  the  message  which  tliey  also  carried  in 
writing. 

Still  this  was  not  complete  emancipation  from  Legal- 
ism. The  whole  ministry  of  Paul  was  needed  to  effect 
that,  by  demonstrating  that  salvation  is  by  faith  in  Christ 
alone,  and  that  the  believer  is  no  longer  under  the  law, 
but  under  grace.  The  meeting,  or  council  at  Jerusalem 
occurred  in  the  year  50  or  51  A.  I).,  most  probably  the 
former. 

Soon  afterward  Paul  and  Barnabas  undertook  another 
missionary  tour,  but  did  not  go  together.  Barnabas  took 
Mark  as  his  companion  and  went  to  Cyprus;  Paul  took 
Silas,  and  went  through  Xorthern  Syria,  round  the  gulf 
of  Issus  into  Cilicia,  confirming  the  churches.  Thence 
to  Derbe,  Lystra  and  Iconium,  stations  on  his  former 
tour;  then  through  Phrygia  and  Galatia  to  Mysia.  At 
Troas  he  had  a  vision  of  a  man  of  Macedonia,  saying 
"  come  over  into  Macedonia,  and  help  us."  Accordingly 
he  and  his  companions  sailed  over  to  i^eapoli8,and  thence 
proceeded  to  Philippi.  In  that  city  after  being  imprisoned, 
miraculously  delivered,  the  conversion  of  the  jailor,  and 
vindication  of  their  own  character  as  Roman  citizens, 
the  missionaries  planted  a  church,  and  proceeding  south- 
ward visited  Thessalonica  and  Bersea.  There  meeting 
with  opposition  from  Jews,  Paul  went  to  Athens,  then 
to  Corinth,  where  his  companions,  left  at  Ber^a,  came  to 
him.  After  laboring  about  eighteen  months  at  Corinth 
he  sailed  to  Ephesus,  then  to  Csesarea  in  Palestine,  then  to 
Jerusalem  to  observe  the  Pentecost,  and  returned  to 
Antiocii  in  course  of  the  Summer. 

Paul's    third    missionary-    tour    was    entered    on    in 
Autumn  of  same   year  in  which   he  returned   from   the 


12 

second.  It  pursued  nearly  the  same  course,  but  more 
time  was  spent  in  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  and  its  direction 
was  through  Proconsuhir  Asia  to  Ephesus.  In  that  city 
Paul  remained  nearly  three  years,  so  that  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  province  heard  tlie  word  of  the  Lord  Jesus. 
In  the  year  57  he  proceeded  by  way  of  Troas,  to  Mace- 
donia and  in  the  Winter  visited  Corinth,  spent  three 
months  there  and  in  the  vicinit}-.  Next  Spring  he  set 
forth  on  his  return  by  way  of  Macedonia  :  thence  across 
the  ^Egean  sea  to  Troas  ;  then  from  point  to  point  down 
the  Asiatic  coast  to  Miletus  where  he  had  his  last  inter- 
viaw  with  the  elders  of  Ephesus  ;  then,  by  way  of  Rhodes 
and  Patara,  to  Tyre,  to  Ptolemais  and  Caesarea,  and 
linally  to  Jerusalem. 

At  Jerusalem  a  violent  Jewish  party  charged  him  witii 
teacliing  even  Jews  abroad  to  disregard  the  laws  of  Moses, 
and  stirred  up  a  mob,  from  which  Paul  Avaa  rescued  by 
the  Roman  officer  in  command  of  the  garrison  in  the 
city.  This  led  to  his  trial  before  Felix,  Festus  and 
Agrippa  and  his  appeal  to  Csesar.  At  Caesarea  he  was 
kept  a  prisoner  during  the  whole  of  the  year  59,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  next.  Late  in  the  Autumn  of  A.  D. 
60.  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  but  was  delayed  until  the  Win- 
ter set  in.  In  crossing  the  Ionian  sea  he  suffered  sliip- 
wreck,  was  constrained  to  spend  three  months  on  the 
island  of  Malta,  and  did  not  reach  Rome  until  the  Spring 
of  A.  D.  61. 

The  officer  who  had  charge  of  Paul  and  the  other 
prisoners,  treated  him  with  great  courtesy  and  indul- 
gence. At  Rome,  he  was  received  with  similar  consid- 
eration, and  was  suffered  to  dwell  two  years  in  a  house 
hired  by  himself,  freely  preaching  the  gospel  to  all  who 
visited  him. 

Paul's  efforts  had  been  addressed  chieiiy  to  the  great 
eeats  of  government  and  moral  influence.  Antioch  was 
his  starting  point,  and  the  scenes  of  his  most  prolonged 
labors,  besides  that  city,  were  Philippi,  Ephesus,  Corinth 
and  Rome. 

The  companions  of  Paul  in  his  missionary  labor  were 
in  his  first  journey,  Barnabas  all  the  way,  and  Mark  as 
far  as   Perga;    on  his   second,  Silas,   and    from  Lystra, 


13 

Timoth}',  and  at  least  part  of  the  way,  Luke;  on  liis 
third,  Luke,  Titus  and  Timothy.  Aqnila  and  Priseilhi, 
Apollos  and  others  were  also  associated  with  him  briefly 
at  different  times  and  phices. 

His  epistles  were  written  chieliy  between  A.  D.  52 
and  63,  at  Corinth,  at  Ephesns,  in  Macedonia  and  at 
Rome. 

A  tradition  represents  Paul  as  liberated  after  his  first 
trial,  as  making  extensive  missionary  tours,  revisiting 
Ephesus,  Macedonia  and  Miletus,  and  extending  his 
labors  to  Nicopolis,  to  Crete  and  to  Spain.  In  the  year 
preceding  the  death  of  Nero,  it  is  said  he  was  again  in 
Rome,  having  been  arrested  a  second  time,  and  suffered 
death  by  beheading  in  that  year.  Those  who  believe  in 
a  second  imprisonment  of  Paul  rtfer  to  it  and  to  the  pre- 
ceding interval  of  freedom,  the  writing  of  the  pastoral 
epistles. 


The  next  section  of  Apostolic  history  extends 
from  tlie  beginning  of  Paul's  imprisonment  in  Rome  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  : — from  A.  1).  61  to  70. 

After  the  meeting  at  Jerusalem,  the  history  of  the 
other  apostles  is  involved  in  obscurity.  After  that  occa- 
sion we  read  of  Peter  at  Antioch,  and  in  his  own  epistle 
at  Babylon.  Although  the  door  was  opened  to  the  gen- 
tiles through  the  agency  of  Peter,  liis  vocation  was  not 
to  them,  but  to  the  Jews.  The  testimonies  adduced  to 
sustain  the  assertion  that  he  was  Bishop  of  Rome,  are 
feeble  and  contradictory  in  themselves,  and  utterly  incon- 
sistent with  all  the  scripture  that  touches  the  subject. 

Of  the  other  apostles  our  knowledge  is  still  more 
scanty,  and  chiefly  apocryphal.  They  are  said  to  have 
preached  the  gospel  in  Arabia,  in  Ethiopia,  in  Egypt,  in 
Parthia,  in  Persia,  in  India  and  in  Scythia,  The  great 
fact,  which  there  is  no  reason  to  question,  is  that  churches 
were  planted  in  all  the  leading  countries  adjoining  on  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  and  in  the  direction  in  which  their 
civilization  was  advancing. 

The  church  accepted  its  generic  form  within  the  time 
of  Paul.     To  that  end  the  chief  actors  were  Peter,  Paul 


14 

juid  James.  The  apostles  had  their  place  exterior  to  the 
working  system  of  the  church,  and  were  not  included 
under  it.  They  were  appointed  by  Christ  and  miracu- 
lously qualified  for  the  special  and  temporary  service 
which  they  performed. 

The  early  christian  church  grew  up  from  elements 
contained  in  the  Jewisli  synagogue,  botli  as  respects  gov- 
ernment and  worsiiip.  The  elders,  who  were  the  rulers, 
the  reader  and  speaker  and  minister  or  attendant  were 
the  office  bearers  of  the  synagogue.  And  the  exercises 
consisted  of  prayer,  reading  of  the  Word,  exposition  and 
exhortation,  with  chanting  of  Psalms,  and  concluded  with 
the  pronunciation  of  a  blessing.  All  the  churches  were 
constituted  on  the  same  tnodel  and  were  of  co-ordinate 
authority.  None  assumed  supremacy  over  the  rest, 
though  Jerusalem  first,  and  then  Antioch,  was  the  most 
influential.  Before  the  death  of  Paul,  the  Christian 
Church  consisted  of  a  great  number  of  such  communities 
all  professing  the  same  faith  and  loving  the  same  Re- 
deemer and  one  another. 

The  publication  of  the  gos[)el  was  first  made  by  oral 
address.  A  literature  however  was  ordained  also  and 
grew  up  by  degrees.  The  canonical  books  except  those 
of  John,  were  probably  all  written  before  the  close  of 
this  section  of  time. 

When  Paul  finished  his  labors,  the  freedom  of  the 
gospel  had  been  fully  vindicated  ;  bnt  there  was  a  party 
in  the  church  which  still  advocated  compliance  with  some 
parts  of  the  ceremonial  law.  The  great  controversy  of 
the  apostolic  period  was  over  this  question.  Paul  was  on 
one  side,  and  Peter  was  claimed  by  the  moderate  advo- 
cates of  the  other.  On  either  side  the  extremes  ran  out 
into  heresy. 

The  animosity  of  unconverted  Jews  and  of  the  Jewish 
authorities  towards  christians  of  all  parties  was  unrelent- 
ing. But  their  power  was- drawing  near  its  end.  A 
heathen  enemy  had  already  begun  his  career. 

The  events  now  mentioned  took  place  under  the 
emperors  Claudius,  and  Nero.  The  last  came  to  the 
throne  in  A.  J).  54.  In  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign,  a 
large  part  of  Rome  w^as  burned,  by  design  or  accident  is 


15 

not  certain.  But  the  blame  was  laid  on  tlie  emperor; 
and  he  to  avert  the  obloquy  from  himself,  charged  it  on 
the  christians.  We  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  he 
concerned  himself  about  their  faith;  but  they  were  a 
class  of  peoj)le  against  whom  he  could  direct  popular 
rage  with  impunity. 

In  the  latter  years  of  Nero's  reign,  an  insurrection  in 
Judea  led  to  the  removal  thither  of  a  large  body  of  Roman 
troops.  An  obstinate  resistance  changed  the  movement 
into  a  war.  On  the  part  of  the  Romans  it  was  conducted 
by  Vespasian  and  his  son  Titus.  In  the  midst  of  the  war 
Nero,  last  of  the  Osesars,  came  to  his  miserable  and 
merited  end,  (June  11,  A.  D.  68.) 

The  imperial  throne  was  now  an  object  of  ambition 
open  to  all  the  heads  of  the  military  force.  The  Pre- 
torian  Guards  at  Rome,  the  army  of  the  west  in  Spain, 
that  of  the  northwest,  in  Gaul  and  on  the  Rhine,  claimed, 
each  for  themselves,  the  right  of  putting  their  respective 
generals  into  the  place  of  honor.  And  Galba,  Otho  and 
Vitellius  were  successively  elevated  to  the  throne  and 
dragged  from  it,  in  the  space  of  a  year  and  a  half.  Soon 
afteVthe  last  of  the  three  was  elevated  to  the  now  dan- 
gerous office,  Vespasian  also  put  in  his  claim.  The 
army  in  Judea  he  left  under  command  of  Titus;  that  of 
lUyricum  was  sufficient  for  his  own  purpose.  It  was 
already  near  the  scene  of  strife,  took  up  his  cause,  and 
won  his  victories  before  his  arrival.  The  em}tire  was 
waiting  for  his  acceptance.  And  thus  the  Flavian  family 
(Dec.  20th,  69,)  became  the  successor  of  ihe  Julian. 

With  Vespasian  a  new  style  of  government  opened. 
For  the  good  of  the  state  his  days  were  filled  with  busi- 
ness. His  industry  and  economy  were  even  more  than 
the  Romans  of  that  age  could  rightly  estimate.  During 
that  reign  from  70  to  79  A.  D.,  Christians,  like  all  other 
orderly  subjects,  enjoyed  the  protection  of  a  government 
which  interfered  not  with  their  religious  opinions. 

Meanwhile  Titus,  in  command  of  the  army  in  Judea, 
after  overcoming  a  resistance  of  unsurpassed  obstinacy, 
took  Jerusalem  by  storm  (Sept.  2,  70  A.  D.)  Its  walls 
and  houses,  and,  much  to  the  regret  of  Titus,  its  beauti- 
ful temple,  were  levelled   with   the  ground.     The  Jews 


16 


as 

tern 

lo 

b 

earth 


a  nation  were  completely  reduced.  A  portion  of  them 
emained  in  the  land  between  sixty  and  seventy  years 
5n^er,  after  whicli  in  another  rebellioj",  they  were  finally 
roken  and  their  fragments  scattered  to  the  ends  of  the 
-  vth 

Their  national  centre  was  now  lost,  and  their   power 

injure  the  christians  greatly  reduced,  but  dispersed  as 

i\'    ixr<ii'ii     ill      till-     sifinn  I'll  f  (->   'ifir'i  Af  i  fiii    tliAir   1 1 1  i^ti  1 1  f"\T    iiovfr 


4L,  _iXll\*       1^1^        uiicvi.        i.Aijiv^       vii^y       ijt4,v^     ctvy^  V4  11*  V4  itvij^  v-i.     xvyi       ».ia>^xi 

posterity  an  inheritance  of  vengeance,  which  is   not   all 
exhausted  to  the  present  day. 

The  Mosaic  economy  virtually  abolished  by  the  death 
of  Christ,  was  now  practically  terminated,  and  the  sac- 
rifice and  oblation  ceased. 

5. 

From  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  A.  I).  70,  to 
the  death  of  the  Apostle  John,  the  church  passed  through 
another  stage  of  progress,  apostolic  chietly,and  towards 
the  last,  solely  by  tlie  presence  of  the  beloved  disciple. 

A  new  generation  was  now  growing  up  in  the  church, 
and  ere  tlie  end  of  this  i>eriod  the  mass  of  believers  (con- 
sisted of  those  who  had  been  born  within  christian 
families. 

The  clemency  of  Vespasian's  reign  was  continued  in 
that  of  Titus,  and  the  churches  enjoyed  freedom,  in  as 
far  as  the  government  was  concerned.  But  when  in  A. 
D.  81,  Domitian,  ayouuger  son  of  Vespasian  came  to  the 
.throne,  the  work  of  persecution  received  imperial  sanc- 
tion. Among  others  Flavins  Clemens  and  his  wife 
Domitilla,  kindred  of  the  emperor,  suft'ered.  Through 
Jewish  misrepresentation  Domitian  was  made  to  believe 
that  the  aim  of  the  christians  was  to  put  the  successors 
of  Jesus  on  the  throne.  He  relaxed  his  severity  upon 
discovering  that  the  surviving  kinsmen  of  Jesus  w^ere 
poor  peasants  without  political  ambition  or  desires. 
Persecution  of  christians  however  continued  on  the 
ground  of  Atheism,  that  is  rejection  of  all  the  gods  of 
heathen  worship.  Nerva,  ascending  the  throne  in  A.  D. 
96,  repealed  the  persecuting  edicts  of  Domitian  ;  but  took 


17 

no  steps  to  legalize  Christianity,  and  give  it  a  right  to 
governmental  protection.  At  the  end  of  two  3'ears  he 
was  succceeded  by  Trajan,  a  wise  ruler,  but  severe,  by 
whom  although  persecution  was  limited,  it  was  within 
those  limits  sanctioned. 

After  the  Jewish  wars  began,  the  apostle  John  removed 
to  Proconsular  Asia,  took  up  his  residence  at  Ephesus, 
and  preached  in  several  cities  in  that  province.  He 
addresses  its  seven  churches  with  the  authority  of  a 
special  commission.  Under  Domitian,  he  was  banished 
for  a  time  to  the  isle  of  Patmos,  where  he  wrote  the 
book  of  Revelation.  His  gospel  was  written  after  the 
other  three,  and  while  he  resided  at  Ephesus.  His 
epistles  have  the  color  of  the  same  period,  adapted  rather 
to  fan  the  love  of  those  brought  up  as  christians  than  to 
instruct  converts  from  heathenism  or  Judaism  ;  and  the 
faults  he  reproves  are  not  of  a  nature  incident  to  new 
churches. 

Disturbers  of  the  peace  of  the  church,  and  of  the 
faith  of  believers  had  already  formed  themselves  into 
sects  of  greater  or  smaller  numbers.  Some  taught  that 
the  end  of  the  world  was  near,  and  looked  for  an  earl}- 
appearance  of  the  Lord.  The  Docetae  held  that  Christ 
had  no  real  body,  others  that  he  was  only  a  man  ;  at 
Ephesus  under  the  very- presence  of  the  apostle,  Cerin- 
thus  the  Gnostic  taught  his  wild  opinions  ;  and  the  Nico- 
laitans  had  such  footing  at  Pergamus  that  the  Holy  Spirit, 
through  John,  administered  a  reproof  for  that  cause. 

John  lived  to  an  advanced  age,  and  died  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan,  about  the  close  of  the  first  century,  and  at 
Ephesus,  to  which  he  had  returned  after  the  death  of 
Domitian.  His  teaching  did  not  turn  upon  legal  con- 
formity or  the  doctrine  of  faith,  but  upon  christian  love, 
and  spiritual  union  with  Christ.  It  was  needful  that  the 
gospel  should  be  presented  in  all  three  views,  as  obe- 
dience, faith  and  love.  Balanced,  as  they  are  in  Scrip- 
ture, they  properly  sustain  one  another.  But  the  last 
comprehends  the  other  two.  Exposition  of  the  more 
comprehensive  principle  was  the  final  work  of  revelation. 

Christianity  was  first  planted  in  cities.  And  as  all 
the  converts   of  one  city   made    only  one    church,    the 


18 

laro^est  churches  were  those  of  the  large  cities.  Most 
eminent  at  the  end  of  the  tirst  century  were  those  assem- 
bled in  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Corinth  and  Rome.  That 
eminence  was  greatly  due  to  the  importance  of  the  cities. 
But  in  no  case  was  authority  over  the  other  churches 
recognized  as  residing  in  them. 

The  episcopal  succession  in  Antioch  begins  with 
Evodius,  and  the  second  bishop  was  Ignatius;  in  Rome, 
it  is  uncertain,  but  the  common  list  begins  with  Linus, 
followed  successively  by  Anacletus,  and  Clement.  Most 
of  the  churches  of  those  days  claimed  to  have  been 
planted  b}'  an  apostle,  but  for  none  of  them  do  we  find 
it  said  in  earliest  tradition  that  an  apostle  was  the  bishop. 

Notwithstanding  the  rise  of  heresies,  the  faith  of  the 
Church  in  general  was  still  of  a  uniform  standard,  and 
means  were  in  use  for  the  propagation  and  maintenance 
of  christian  knowledge.  The  canonical  books  of  the 
New  Testament  received  by  the  Church  without  question 
were  the  four  gospels,  the  acts  of  the  apostles  by.  Luke, 
the  epistles  bearing  the  name  of  Paul,  to  the  number  of 
thirteen,  with  the  first  epistle  of  Peter  and  first  of  John. 
But,  for  a  time,  there  were  some  churches  which  doubted 
concerning  the  epistle  of  James,  the  second  of  Peter, 
the  second  and  third  of  John  and  that  of  Jude.  The 
Apocalypse  was  accepted  from  its- first  appearance.  Sub- 
sequently its  authenticity  was  questioned  by  some  parties 
in  the  chiliast  controversy.  Respecting  the  epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  there  was  question  only  of  its  authorship. 
These  apostolic  writings  were  publicly  read  in  the  meet- 
i'iigs  of  Christians,  and  placed  together  with  Old  Testa- 
ment Scripture. 

The  scrupulousness  of  the  early  christians  which  gave 
rise  to  those  doubts,  was  due  to  the  existence  of  certain 
other  books,  in  some  respects  good  and  well  meaning, 
but  of  no  apostolic  authority. 

The  day  on  which  the  Lord  arose  was  a  solemn  and 
memorable  day  to  the  disciples.  On  that  day  week  they 
were  again  assembled,  when  the  Lord  appeared  among 
them.  SubsequentK'  mention  is  made  of  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  as  that  on  which  the  disciples  "  met  together 
to  break  bread,"  (Acts  xx.  7,)  and    by  the  Apostle  John 


19 

mention  is  made  of  the  Lord's  day,  Rev.  i.  10.  Jewisli 
Christians  observed  aiso  the  annual  festival  of  Pentecost. 
And  in  some  places  exercises  of  public  as  well  as  private 
worship  were  observed  daily. 

Worship  consisted  of  prayei-,  reading  of  Scripture, 
preaching,  and  singing  of  Psalms  and  Hymns  and  spirit- 
ual songs.     The  music  was  entirely  vocal. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  apostles  and  elders  wore 
any  peculiar  vestments  when  conducting  divine  service. 

The  places  used  for  social  worship  were,  in  the  first 
instance,  synagogues,  but  also,  and  perhaps  most  com- 
monly, private  houses. 

Of  Sacraments  the  early  christians  had  only  two, 
Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 

The  ordinary  ministers  in  sacred  office  were  elders,  in 
the  tirst  instance  ordained  by  the  apostles,  or  evangelists, 
(Acts  xiv.  23.  Titus  ii,  li,)  with  the  concurrence  of  the 
church  over  whicli  they  were  set  (Clement,  1  Epistle  to 
Cor.  44),  and  evidence  that  they  were  called  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  (Acts  20  :  28.)  The  form  was  laying  on  of  hands 
by  the  Apostles  or  by  the  Presbytery,  (1  Tim.  4  :  14.) 

From  the  corrupt  morals  of  the  age,  to  which  the 
first  christian  converts  ha<l  been  more  or  less  accustomed, 
the  exercise  of  church  discipline  was  necessaril}^  strict, 
yet  it  was  ordered  by  the  apostles  to  be  laid  on  with  the 
tenderness  of  brethren,  (2  Thes.  3  :  14,  15.  Titus  3  :  10. 
2  Cor.  2  :  7.)  The  christian  was  to  be  holy,  as  becoming 
him  in  whom  dwells  the  Spirit  of  God.     1  Cor.  3  :  16,  17. 


SECOND   PERIOD. 

From  100  to  325. 

1. — Apostolic  Fathers. 

At  the  death  of  the  Apostle  John,  about  the  3'ear  100, 
we  come  to  the  dividing  line  between  revelation  and  the 
work  of  preserving  what  has  been  revealed.  So  far  the 
church  has  been  instructed  b}'  inspired  teachers,  now 
she  is  to  rely  upon  ordinary  means.  Still,  for  a  few 
years,  the  personal  influence  of  the  apostles  lingered  in 


20 

the  lives  of  persons  who  had  enjoyed  their  society.  The 
next  most  interesting  group  in  the  history  of  the  church 
is  that  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  eminently  gifted  men 
who  had  been  disciples  of  some  of  the  apostles,  among 
whom  the  most  important  were  Clement  of  Rome,  Bar- 
nabas, Hernias,  Ignatius,  Papias  and  Polycarp.  Of  their 
writings  we  have  a  general  epistle  by  Barnabas,  an  epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  by  Clement,  a  book  by  Hernias,  which 
he  calls  the  Shepherd,  several  epistles  ascribed  to  Igna- 
tius, and  an  epistle  of  Polycarp  to  the  church  at  Philippi. 
Other  writings  are  ascribed  to  some  of  them,  but  deemed 
spurious.  Quite  a  number  of  books  also  are  extant,  as 
if  from  the  first  and  second  centuries,  which  are  grouped 
under  the  general  name  Apocryphal.  To  none  of  these, 
the  genuine  works  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  any  more 
than  the  apo».'ryphal,  did  the  early  church,  or  any  part  of 
it,  attach  a  value  equal  to  the  writings  of  the  apostles. 

According  to  tradition,  Clement  died  in  A.  D.  102, 
Ignatius  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  amphitheatre  at 
Rome  in  115.  Papias  survived  until  163,  and  Polycaiii 
died  the  death  of  a  martyr  in  167  or  169. 

The  doctrines  upon  which  those  teachers  insisted 
most,  were  the  deity  of  Jesus,  his  equality  with  the 
Father,  his  vicarious  suffering,  the  remission  of  sins 
through  his  blood,  the  depravity  of  man,  justification  by 
faith  in  Christ  and  obedience  to  his  instructions.  Some 
in  their  doctrine,  as  Clement,  Hernias  and  Barnabas  fol- 
low the  example  of  Paul,  and  others,  as  Ignatius  and 
Polycarp  that  of  John. 

»  The  great  theological  question  was  the  person  of 
Christ.  On  that  the  extreme  doctrines  were  those  of  the 
Docetae,  on  one  hand,  and  of  the  Ebionites,  on  the  other, 
while  Gnostics  wove  it  according  to  their  fancies,  into 
the  speculations  of  their  philosophy. 

Extraordinary  offices  in  the  church  had  now  ceased. 
It  became  necessary  to  rely  upon  those  of  Presbyter  and 
Deacon  ;  which  already  began  to  be  subdivided  in  some 
churches.  There  was  no  higher  rank  in  the  church  than 
the  Presbyter.  And  each  church,  with  its  session  of 
Presbyters,  administered  its  own  government  without 
subordination  to  any  ecclesiastical  superior.    A  Presbyter 


21 

was  so  called  from  the  custom  of  the  synagogue,  the 
name  being  only  the  Greek  word  for  elder;  but  by  the 
Greeks  he'was  also  called  an  overseer,  iTTcaxoTio^,  from 
which  Bishop  is  an  English  derivative,  the  former  beiug 
a  title  of  rank,  and  the  latter  a  designation  of  office. 

Deacons,  originally  apppointed  to  distribute  alms  and 
relieve  the  apostles  of  secular  duties,  took  care  of  the 
poor  and  sick,  and  discharged  other  offices  standing 
between  the  church  and  the  world. 

These  were  the  only  ordinary  officers  of  the  primitive 
church.  Knowledge  of  this  fact  was  retained  among 
christians  long  after  its  simplicity  had  been  practically 
abandoned.  It  was  defended  as  historical  by  Hilary  of 
Rome  in  the  4th  century,  by  Jerome  in  the  .')th,  by  Isidore 
of  Seville,  in  the  7th,  by  Anselni  in  the  11th,  by  Peter 
Lombard  in  the  12th,  and  others,  until  after  the  revival 
of  learning  in  the  14th,  it  became  again  more  commonly 
recognized. 

At  first  all  the  presbyters  of  a  church  were  bishops; 
but  on  any  occasion  of  public  worship,  one  of  them 
necessarily  presided.  For  each  to  have  taken  his  turn 
would  have  best  preserved  their  equality.  But  from  that 
method  they  early  departed,  for  one  reason  or  another, 
yielding  the  duty  of  presiding  to  one  of  their  number, 
who  thereby  became  more  specially  the  overseer,  or  bishop 
of  the  congregation.  In  course  of  time  it  was  thought 
expedient  to  determine  the  rule  that  there  should  be  only 
one  bishop  in  one  church.  This  change  took  place,  of 
course,  gradually,  and  in  some  churches  sooner  than  in 
others.  It  manifests  itself  in  the  course  of  the  second 
century. 

Church  extension  proceeded  in  apostolic  times  by  the 
method  of  planting  each  new  congregation  as  a  separate 
church,  competentto  its  own  government,  after  the  model 
constituted  everywhere  by  the  apostles.  But  when  the 
churches  of  the  great  cities  began  to  expand,  and  new 
congregations  to  proceed  from  them,  another  method, 
that'of^'branch  churches,  was  gradually  generated. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  period  the  emperor  Trajan 
was  on  the  throne,  and  reigned  until  117.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Hadrian,  from  117  to  138.     Neither  of  those 


22 

emperors  exhibited  any  animosity  against  christians,  and 
yet  within  tlieir  time  christians  suffered  much  at  the 
hands  of  local  rulers  and  the  people  of  certain  provinces. 
Priests  and  other  ministers  of  heathenism  were  exceed- 
ingly bitter  against  them,  and  stirred  up  the  people  to 
maltreat  them,  or  prosecuted  them  before  the  magistrates, 
on  various  false  charges.  Information  touching  these 
matters  did  not  always  reach  the  Emperor. 

An  important  contemporaneous  testimony  from  the 
heathen  side  is  tlie  letter  of  the  younger  Pliny  from 
Bithynia  to  Trajan.  Pliny  was  governor  of  Bithynia, 
where  Christianity  had  made  great  progress,  while  neither 
legally  allowed  nor  forbidden,  and  found  himself  called 
upon,  in  regard  to  those  charged  with  professing  its  faith, 
to  act  where  he  had  no  law.  He  had  recourse  to  the 
Emperor,  stating  distinctly  the  case  and  what  he  had  been 
able  to  learn  about  the  christians.  In  the  rescript  of 
Trajan,  written  probably  in  104,  we  have  tlio  iirst  Roman 
law  intelligently  addressed  to  the  subject.  It  instructed 
Pliny  not  to  disturb  the  christians,  not  to  take  actiou  in 
regard  to  them,  unless  brought  before  him  on  a  definite 
charge  ;  but  if  so  accused  and  convicted  they  were  to  be 
punished  unless  they  denied  Christ,  and  were  willing  to 
adore  the  Roman  gods.  (Pliny's  Letters,  Book  X.  let- 
ters 97,  98.)  Designed,  as  that  rescript  was,  to  put  a 
check  upon  unjust  prosecutions,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
in  the  provinces  many  christians  suffered  under  its  sanc- 
tion. 

From  the  letter  of  Pliny  it  appears  that  christian  wor- 
ship, at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  was  still 
extremelj'  simple,  conducted  in  Bithynia  with  a  degree 
of  secrecy.  Their  meetings  were  held  very  early  in  the 
morning.  Christ  was  the  object  of  their  adoration. 
They  observed  the  Lord's  Supper,  or  the  Love  Feasts 
frequently:  and  held  themselves  under  oath  to  do  no 
wrong.  They  were  disposed  to  submit  to  the  govern- 
ment in  all  things,  not  inconsistent  with  their  duty  to 
God.  But  could  not  be  induced  by  even  torture  and  the 
terrors  of  death  to  deny  Christ.  And  their  intluence 
was  vastly  greater  than  their  numbers.  Throughout 
Bithynia  the  observances  of  heathen  worship  had  almost 


23 

ceased;  the  temples  were  nearly  deserted,  and  victims 
for  sacrifice  conld  scarcely  find  a  purchaser. 

In  the  reign  of  Hadrian  the  heathen  populace  pro- 
ceeded to  euch  a  degree  ot' animosity  as  to  clamor  for  the 
execution  of  christians  in  the  arena,  as  part  of  the  enter- 
tainment at  the  public  festivals.  Hadrian  issued  a  rescript 
interdicting  such  inhumaii  proceedings. 

Within  this  period  the  Jews  provoked  their  final 
reduction.  In  Cyrene,  (A.  D.  115)  they  excited  an  insur- 
rection, which  extended  to  Egypt  and  Cyprus.  Another 
was  raised  by  them  in  Mesopotamia.  Another  in  132, 
under  their  leader  Bar  Cochab,  attempted  to  expel  the 
Romans  from  Palestine.  In  the  war  whereby  that  insur- 
rection was  put  down,  Palestine  was,  in  135,  reduced 
almost  to  a  desert.  Jews  were  forbidden  to  visit  the 
ruins  of  Jerusalem  on  pain  of  death.  Only  once  a  year, 
on  the  anniversary  of  its  destruction,  were  tliey  permitted 
to  view  the  place  from  a  distance.  A  new  town  subse- 
quently arose  there,  and  in  it  a  church  of  gentiles. 

2. — Primitive  Apologists. 

The  next  division  of  this  period  maybe  most  charac- 
teristically designated  as  that  of  the  Primitive  Apolo- 
gists, in  whom,  during  the  middle  and  latter  part  of  the 
second  century,  the  church  had  her  ablest  defenders. 
The  productions  called  apologies  were  defences  of  christ- 
ians, written  for  the  purpose  of  being  jjresented  to  the 
Emperor,  or  the  Roman  Senate.  When  Hadrian  upon 
his  imperial  tour  visited  Athens  in  126,  the  learned  christ- 
ian Quadratus  took  occasion  to  present  to  him  a  defence 
of  his  fellow  christians.  Another  was  presented  about 
the  same  time  by  Aristides.  A  third  was  written  by 
Agrippa  Castor,  about  135,  against  the  heresies  of  Basi- 
lides.  All  three  are  lost.  The  earliest  extant  work  of 
the  kind  is  that  of  Justin  Martyr,  addressed  to  the 
Emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  about  139.  Another  was  pre- 
pared by  the  same  author  between  161  and  166,  to  be 
presented  to  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus,  col- 
leagues on  the  throne.  He  also  wrote  a  work  called  a 
Dialogue  with  Trypho  the  Jew,  in  which  he  encounters 
the  objections  from  the  side  of  Judaism. 


24 

Justin  was  a  native  of  Samai'ia,  born  of  Gentile  par- 
ents. He  suffered  niartj-rdoni  at  Rome  in  or  about  the 
year  166. 

Tatian,  a  friend  and  disei[)le  of  Justin,  wrote  an 
address  to  the  heathen  among  the  Greeks,  urging  the 
folly  and  grossness  of  heathenism,  and  tlie  purity  and 
wisdom  of  scripture. 

The  apology  of  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch,  was 
inscribed  to  a  friend,  one  Autolycus,  who  was  a  heathen, 
but  a  h)ver  of  truth,  and  presents  evidences  for  christian 
truth,  drawn  from  both  Scripture  and  history. 

Athenagoras  of  Athens  also  prepared  for  the  emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius  an  argument  in  defence  of  the  christ- 
ians. 

Irenaeus  about  170  wrote  his  treatise  against  heresies, 
chiefly  the  heresies  of  the  Gnostics.  Such  writings 
increased  in  number  towards  the  end  of  the  century,  but 
most  of  them  are  no  longer  extant.  Of  those  which 
remain  most  valuable  is  the  longer  apology  of  Justi.n.  Its 
topics  may  be  classified  under  the  following  heads. 

1.  "  Appeals  to  the  justice  of  the  ruling  powers,  and 
expostulations  with  them  on  the  unfairness  of  the  pro- 
ceedings against  christians." 

2.  "  Refutations  of  the  charges  of  Atheism,  immo- 
rality and  of  disaffection  towards  the  Emperor." 

3.  "  Direct  arguments  in  proof  of  the  truth  of  Christ- 
ianity drawn  from  miracles  and  prophecy." 

4.  Exposure  of  the  baseness  and  absurdity  of  poly- 
theism and  idolatry,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  beneficial 
e-fFects  of  christian  doctrine  upon  the  life  of  men. 

5.  Description  of  the  christian  rites,  customs  and  man- 
ner of  life. 

Among  the  literary  opponents,  whom  the  apologists 
had  to  encounter,  were  Celsus  the  Epicurean,  Crescens 
the  Cynic,  and  the  rhetorician  M.  C.  Fronto,  who  all 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  century.  Bitterest 
w^as  Celsus.  In  a  work  called  the  True  Account  he  col- 
lected all  the  arguments  against  Christianity,  which  he 
could  urge  with  any  degree  of  probability.  It  is  now 
known  only  in  the  refutation  of  it  by  Origen. 


25 

The  arguments  against  Christianity  were  chiefly, 

1.  That  Jesus  was  of  low  birth,  and  brouglit  up 
among  the  ignorant,  the  vulgar  and  vicious,  and  tliat  he 
.suffered  an  ignominious  deatli. 

2.  That  Christianity  was  a  novelty  ;  that  it  had  not  the 
sanction  of  any  national  government ;  that  it  had  com- 
menced among  barbarians,  that  its  facts  were  incredit>le, 
and  its  doctrines  absurd,  especially  those  of  regeneration 
and  the  resurrection  ;  that  different  portions  of  Scripture 
contradicted  each  other,  and  that  it  demanded  a  blind 
and  unreasonable  faith. 

3.  Christians  were  cliarged  with  Atheism,  with  the 
worship  of  a  crucified  malefactor,  with  being  poor  and 
uncultivated,  with  the  crime  of  creating  division  in 
religion  and  society,  and  of  being  disloyal  to  their  coun- 
try and  to  the  emperor,  with  a  superstitious  spirit,  fanati- 
cal and  dismal. 

4.  Sometimes  also  iiiysteriously  awful  crimes  were 
imputed  to  them,  as  that  of  indiscriminate  licentious- 
ness, of  eating  human  flesh  and  blood,  of  devonrino; 
children  in  their  religious  feasts,  and  other  things  equally 
wild,  the  fictions  of  alarmed  ignorance  and  heated  imagi- 
nations. 

Holding  such  belief  the  heathen  populace  certainly 
thought  that  they  had  abundant  cause  for  their  deadly 
hatred  to  tlie  followers  of  Christ. 

In  debate  with  Jews,  the  early  defenders  of  the  gospel 
found  common  ground  in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures; 
and  their  aim  was  to  show  that  the  prophecies  and  types 
of  the  Messiah,  therein  contained,  were  all  fulfilled  in 
Jesus  of  Nazareth. 

With  heathen  the  controversy  was  partly  religious 
and  moral,  and  partly  political  and  social,  and  had  to  be 
debated  on  the  ground  of  admitted  moral  principle,  good 
sense,  demonstrable  truth  and  the  common  rights,  of 
Roman  subjects.  It  was  the  external  morality  of  those 
early  witnesses  for  the  gospel  which  weighed  most  in 
their  favor,  and  the  change  which  passed  upon  wicked 
men  when  they  became  christian. 

It  was  when  the  stoic  philosopher  Marcus  Aurelius 
came   to    the   throne,  in    161,  that   persecution   received 


26 

imperial  direction,  and  proceeded  upon  principle  and  bj 
law. 

Commodus,  though  a  worse  man  than  his  father, 
proved  a  more  lenient  ruler  towards  the  christians.  At 
the  end  of  the  second  centurj'  their  number  had  vastly 
increased  within  the  empire,  though  under  much  oppres- 
sion, and  in  some  places  constrained  to  observe  their 
ordinances  in  secret. 

Concerning  the  doctrine  and  worship  of  christians  in 
the  second  century  we  learn  most  from  the  apologists. 
For  the  works  of  their  theologian  Arabianus,  and  of 
their  historian  Hegesippus,  have  perished. 

1.  They  worshipped  Christ  as  God  proceeding  from 
the  Father,  not  as  a  holy  man,  but  as  the  Word  made 
flesh,  the  Divine  nature  incarnate. 

2.  They  believed  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  one  of  the 
persons  in  Godhead,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  Father 
and  Son  an  object  of  worship. 

3.  Of  man,  they  believed  that  he  was  created  capable 
of  choosing  right ;  but  capable  also  of  transgression,  and 
that  by  sinning  he  fell  in  Adam. 

4.  Justification  they  assigned  entirely  to  the  merits 
of  Christ  as  its  ground  or  cause,  and  faith  they  held  to 
be  the  means  of  acceptance. 

5.  They  believed  in  such  a  degree  of  human  freedom 
that  men  were  accountable  for  their  actions. 

6.  They  believed  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  in 
case' of  both  righteous  and  wicked,  the  eternal  blessed- 
ness of  the  former,  and  eternal  punishment  of  the  latter. 

•  But  the  principal  point,  discussed  with  all  the  philo- 
sophical acumen  of  the  time,  was  the  person  of  Christ, 
and  his  place  in  various  theories  of  good  and  evil. 

Of  the  forms  of  their  worship  and  sacraments  we 
learn  also  some  interesting  particulars  from  the  same 
sources,  especially  from  Justin. 

1.  Of  Baptism  he  writes  that  it  had  taken  the  place 
of  circumcision,  and  accordingly  it  was  applied  to  infants. 

2.  It  was  administered  by  afiusion,  by  immersion,  or 
by  sprinkling,  in  the  name  of  God  the  Father,  the  Son 
and  the  Holy  Spirit.  Only  water  was  used.  ]^o  other 
ceremony  is  mentioned  as  connected  with  it. 


27 

3.  The  (lay  which  is  called  Sunday  Justin  says  was 
kept  by  them,  because  on  that  clay  of  the  week  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  rose  from  the  dead.  On  that  day  the  people 
in  town  and  country  met  in  their  respective  places  of 
worship. 

(a.)  In  those  meetings  the  memoirs  of  the  apostles, 
or  writings  of  the  propliets  were  read  to  such  length  as 
time  permitted. 

(b.)  Then  the  brother  who  presided  delivered  a  dis- 
course, in  which  he  instructed  the  people,  and  exhorted 
them  to  the  imitation  of  those  excellent  examples. 

(c.)  After  that,  they  all  rose  together,  and  ofl'ered  up 
their  prayers. 

(d.)  After  prayer,  bread  was  brought,  and  wine  and 
water.  And  again  the  brother  who  presided  otfei'ed  ui» 
prayer  and  thanksgiving  according  to  his  ability,  and  the 
[)eople  expressed  their  assent  l)y  sa3nng  "  Amen." 

Justin  makes  no  mention  of  singing.  But  elsewhere 
that  element  of  worshij)  appears  with  sufficient  clearness. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  christian  meet- 
ings as  they  were  described  to  Pliny.  Where  Justin 
worshipped,  it  seems  that  the}'  celebrated  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per every  Lord's  day.  He  describes  the  administration 
of  that  ordinance,  more  particularly. 

1.  After  the  pi-ayer  which  closed  the  ordinary  ser- 
vices, the  people  saluted  one  another  with  a  kiss. 

2.  Then  to  that  one  of  the  brethren  who  presided 
there  was  brought  bi-ead,  and  a  cup  of  wine  mixed  with 
water. 

3.  And  he  taking  them  offered  up  thanks  and  praise 
to  the  Father  of  all,  through  the  name  of  the  Son  and  of 
the  Holy  Ghost, 

4.  When  he  had  finished  the  praj^er,  and  offering  of 
thanks,  all  the  people  present  assented  by  saying 
"Amen." 

5.  Then  the  Deacons  gave  to  each  of  those  w^ho  were 
present  to  partake  of  the  bread,  and  of  the  wine  and 
water,  and  to  carry  away  some  foi"  those  who  were  absent. 

6.  In  that  ordinance  only  those  were  allowed  to  par- 
take, who  professed  their  belief  in  those  things  which 
were  taught  in  the  church,  w^ere  baptized,  and  endeavored 
to  live  as  Christ  commanded. 


28 

7.  The  bread  Justin  speaks  of  as  what  Christ  had 
cotnnianded  to  be  offered  in  remembrance  of  his  beins: 
made  flesh,  and  the  cup  as  that  wliich  lie  commanded  to 
be  offered  in  remembrance  of  his  blood. 

8.  He  does  not  mention  the  posture  of  the  communi- 
cants; but  from  that  fact  it  may  be  inferred,  as  well  as 
from  the  statement  that  the  Deacons  distributed  the  ele- 
ments, that  it  was  the  same  which  they  occupied  when 
listening  to  the  preceding  sermon  and  reading.  For  their 
change  of  posture  in  prayer  he  does  mention. 

9.  After  the  service,  a  collection  was  taken  up  for  the 
poor. 

Besides  the  Lord's  Day,  many  christians  still  kept  the 
Jewish  Sabbath,  and  the  Jewish  Christian  practice  of 
observing  certain  annual  festivals  was  gradually  gaining 
ground  among  the  Gentile  churches.  It  was  also  com- 
mon to  fast  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays.  The  annual 
commemoration  of  the  Lord's  suffering,  death  and  resur- 
rection was  also  general  in  the  churches  both  east  and 
west.  But  they  differed  in  the  way  of  observing  it.  By 
tlie  end  of  the  century  a  serious  controversy  nrose  be- 
tween them  on  that  subject. 

That  Period  which  opened  with  tlie  accession  of  Nerva 
A.  D.  96,  and  closed  in  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
(180,/W'as  the  most  prosperous  and  tranquil  in  the  history 
of  imperial  Rome.  The  facilities  for  publication  of  tlie 
gospel,  notwithstanding  local  and  occasional  persecutions, 
were  unprecedented.  The  empire  had  reached  its  utmost 
extent,  was  most  of  the  time  in  .peace,  the  fear  or  rever- 
ence of  it  was  upon  all  the  world,  delegates  from  Anto- 
ninus went  even  as  far  as  China,  and  the  wants,  natural 
and  artificial,  of  so  many  great  cities  made  demands, 
which  the  most  distant  barbarous  nations  found  their 
profit  in  supplying. 

When  from  relying  upon  the  counsel  of  an  inspired 
apostle  the  church  came  to  employ  tlie  judgment  of  unin- 
spired teachers,  many  difficulties  beset  her  way.  One  of 
these  was  philosophical  speculation  of  that  style  which 
bore  the  general  name  of  Gnosis.  It  was  not  new,  but 
reached  its  maturity  in  the  second  centur^^  within  the 
time  of  the  Primitive  Apologists. 


29 

Christian  Gnosticism  was  a  theory  of  orood  and  evil, 
how  thev  arose,  and  how  they  co-exist,  and  how  the  per- 
sons of  Christ  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit  stand  in  relation 
to  them.     Tts  fundamental  elements  were 

1.  A  great  and  hol_y  spirit,  eternal,  unchangeable  and 
infinite,  the  source,  of  all  life  and  good;  but  inactive,— 
the  tranquil  reservoir  of  holiness  and  power. 

2.  The  world  of  matter,  existing  also  from  all  eternity, 
but  inactive,  and  containing  in  itself  the  principles  of 
evil. 

3.  The  union  of  spirit  and  matter,  which  was  tem- 
porary, and  productive  of  the  natural  or  imperfect. 

4.  The  ruler  of  the  natural  world  was  the  Demiurgus, 
or  master  spirit,  who  created  it  by  combining  the  contra- 
dictory elements  of  spirit  and  mati"er. 

5.  Souls  of  men  were  rays  of  light  which  had  come 
from  the  eternal  spirit.  In  their  earthly  condition  they 
are  continually  striving  to  obtain  deliverance  from  fetters 
of  the  Demiurgus  and  of  matter,  and  thereby  to  return 
into  the  region  of  the  pure  and  spiritual. 

6.  Christ  was  one  of  the  highest  spirits  of  light,  who 
connected  himself  with  the  l)ody  of  Jesus,  to  assist  men 
in  effecting  that  end. 

The  various  schools  of  Gnosticism  differed  from  each 
other  chiefly  in  their  way  of  representing  the  imperfect. 
That  of  Alexandria  effected  it  by  emanations.  But 
theories  of  emanations  differed  among  themselves. 

1.  Basilides  taught  that  seven  secondary  powers  ema- 
nated from  God.  From  these  emanated  other  seven,  and 
from  these  again  a  third  class,  and  so  on,  until  there  were 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  kingdoms  of  spirits,  each  of 
which  possessed  a  feebler  degree  of  power  in  goodness 
than  the  preceding,  and  the  seven  angels  of  the  lowest 
heaven  came  into  contact  with  matter,  and  their  chief 
became  the  Creator  of  the  world,  the  Demiurgus. 

Men,  at  so  great  a  distance  as  they  were  from  God, 
bound  up  with  matter  in  creation,  were  inextricably 
involved  in  darkness  and  evil.  To  deliver  their  souls 
from  that  bondage,  the  ISTous,  the  first  spirit  of  the  high- 
est order,  entered  the  man  Jesus,  at  his  baptism,  and 
remained  connected  with  him  until  just  before  his  death. 


30 

2.  Valentinus,  also  an  Egj^ptian,  removed  about  140 
to  Rome.  His  pleroma  wa?  simpler  than  that  of  Basilides. 
It  consisted  of  fifteen  male  and  as  many  female  aeons 
who  all  emanated  from  Bythos,  the  de[)tlis  of  Deity, 
From  the  last  of  these  proceeded  a  being  called  Acha- 
moth,  which  had  no  longer  power  enough  to  retain  its 
place  within  the  Pleroma,  and  so  came  into  contact  with 
matter,  and  communicating  the  germ  of  life  thereto, 
formed  the  Demirugus  or  creator  of  the  world. 

Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit  were  two  new  aeons,  who 
came  to  restore  the  disturbed  harmony  of  th«  Pleroma. 

3.  A  third  branch  of  Alexandrian  Gnosticism  vA'as 
that  of  the  Ophites.  In  their  doctrine,  the  first  man,  the 
second  man,  i.  e.  the  son  of  man,  and  the  Holy  Spirit 
emanate  separately  from  Bythos.  From  the  last,  through 
means  of  the  former  two,  proceed  the  perfect  masculine 
light-nature,  Sophia,  or  wisdom.  Sopljia  sought  to  defeat 
the  oppressive  designs  of  the  world  creator  through  the 
serpent  of  the  first  temptation.  The  office  assigned  to 
Christ  was  the  same  as  in  the  theory  of  Valentinus, 

II.  Among  the  Gnostics  of  Syria  a  simple  dualism 
prevailed.  Their  principal  representative,  Saturninus  of 
Antioch,  (between  125  and  150)  taught  that  there  was  an 
original  evil  Being,  the  everlasting  antagonist  of  God, 
and  that  in  accordance  with  these  two  powers,  both 
active,  there  are  two  classes  of  men,  one  instigated  by 
the  evil  Being,  and  the  other  by  the  good. 

III.  The  Gnosticism  of  Asia  Minor  is  represented 
chiefly  by   Marcion,   a  native   of  Sinope,   who   came  to 

'Rome,  and  studied  with  the  Gnostic  Cerdo,  between  140 
and  150.  In  Marcion's  system  there  are  three  original 
principles,  the  holy,  the  righteous,  and  the  wicked, 
enabodied  in  God,  the  Demiurgus,  and  the  Devil.  As  in 
other  Gnostic  systems,  matter  is  essentially  evil.  Men 
were  under  the  merely  righteous  Demiurgus;  and  from 
him  could  expect  only  justice.  To  free  them  from  his 
severity,  Christ  took  the  appearance  of  a  body  among 
them,  and  revealed  to  them  the  holy  God,  and  the  way 
of  obtaining  his  favor. 

Such  fanciful  theories  admitted  of  endless  diversity 
of  treatment.     The  sect  called   Ophites   lasted  longest, 


31 

and  were  still  in  existence  as  late  as  530.  Gnosticism 
embraced  elements  of  both  Ebionism  and  Docetism,  but 
held  nearest  affinity  to  the  latter. 

About  170,  a  sect  arose  in  Phrygia,  under  the  teach- 
ing of  Montanus  of  Ardaban,  afterwards  of  Pepuza, 
which  held  that  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit  consists  in 
extraordinary  excitement,  that  Scripture  was  not  com- 
pleted by  the  apostles,  but  admitted  of  further  revela- 
tion ;  that  Montanus  and  his  associates,  Maximilla  and 
Priscilla,  were  divinely  inspired,  and  possessed  the  gift 
of  prophesying.  They  also  practised  numerous  austeri- 
ties, attached  great  value  to  celibacy  and  martyrdom; 
and  proclaimed  the  end  of  the  world,  and  the  millennial 
reign  of  Christ  to  be  near  at  hand.  The  prophecies  of 
Montanus  and  his  female  associates  were  in  most  cases, 
if  not  all,  committed  to  writing,  and  esteemed  by  their 
followers  as  belonging  to  Holy  Scripture,  and  completing 
the  Christian  Revelation. 

Montanists,  driven  from  Asia  Minor  by  persecution, 
found  refuge  in  Northern  Africa,  where,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century,  they  had  an  able  advocate  in 
Tertullian. 

In  resisting  Montanism  another  party  rushed  to  an 
opposite  extreme,  and  not  only  denied  the  continuance 
of  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the  Spirit,  but  also  the  doctrine 
of  the  divine  Logos,  and  rejected  the  gospel  according 
to  John,  in  which  it  is  principally  taught,  and  the  book 
of  Revelation,  because  of  the  Chiliasm,  which  was  then 
defended  by  it.  The  Alogi,  as  that  party  was  sometimes 
called,  seem  to  have  accepted  Christ  as  a  mere  man  or  as 
deified  by  the  indwelling  of  God  the  Father. 

Among  the  philosophic  sects  of  the  heathen  the  most 
friendly  to  Christianity  was  the  Platonic  ;  and  the  firmest 
opposition  was  exhibited  by  the  Stoics.  Some  doctrines 
which  Platonism  argued,  Christianity  revealed ;  but  the 
pretensions  of  the  Stoics  to  a  faultless  morality  it  rejected. 
But  that  was  the  strong  point  of  Stoicism.  There  was 
abundant  reason  in  the  natural  heart  for  Stoic  hostility 
to  Christians.  Accordingly,  when  Marcus  Aurelius,  an 
illustrious  member  of  that  sect,  came  to  the  throne,  (A. 
D.  161)  persecution  was  ordered  against  them   with  an 


32 

intelligent  animosity,  which  had  not  previously  been 
evinced  by  an  emperor.  It  was  then  that  Justin  suffered 
death  at  Rome  (166),  the  aged  Polycarp  at  SmjM-na,  and 
the  recently  formed  churches  in  Lyons  and  Vienne  in 
Gaul  had  their  faith  severely  tried  (177).  Spies  and 
informers  were  encouraged  to  bring  christians  to  ti'ial, 
and  the  agency  of  persecution  was  in  the  local  tribunals 
sustained  by  tlie  imperial  authority. 

From  contemporaneous  statements  it  appears  that, 

1.  It  was  distinctly  for  their  doctrine  that  christians 
were  then  persecuted. 

2.  The  purpose  of  the  Emperor,  though  springing 
from  a  different  cause,  coincided  with  the  feelings  of  the 
heathen  public,  to  whose  bitterness  and  savage  nature 
the  style  of  the  executions  was  due. 

3.  Local  magistrates  were  sometimes  forced  beyond 
all  legal  forms  b}'  the  demands  of  the  mob. 

4.  Jews  retained  their  old  malignity,  though  no 
longer  in  condition  to  execute  it  of  themselves.  . 

5.  The  endurance  of  the  martyrs  at  that  time  was  due 
to  christian  faith,  not  to  mere  ph3'8ical  enerL*"}'  or  impas- 
sive nerves,  nor  to  the  fanaticism  of  martyrdom. 

6.  It  was  the  superior  claims  of  the  Christian's  God, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  and  the  life  in  Christ 
which  chiefly  exasperated  the  rage  of  the  heathen. 

Among  the  sources  of  christian  history  for  the  second 
century,  there  ai-e  fifteen  epistles  under  the  name  of 
Ignatius.  They  were  all  published  for  genuine  as  late 
as  during  the  16th  century.  But  three  of  them,  written 
♦in  Latin  were  soon  discovered  to  be  spurious  ;  subsequent 
criticism,  in  a  few  years  clearly  exposed  the  false  pre- 
tensions of  five  more.  Bishop  Pearson,  an  English  di- 
vine of  the  17th  century,  in  a  learned  treatise,  defended 
the  genuineness  of  the  remaining  seven.  These  exist  in 
two  forms,  a  longer  and  a  shorter.  It  was  the  shorter 
which  from  about  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century 
came  to  be  generally  accepted  as  genuine. 

But  in  1843  certain  ancient  manuscripts  of  three 
Ignatian  epistles  in  the  Syriac  language  were  brought 
from  a  monastery  in  Eg_ypt,  and  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum,  which  have  re-opentd  the  controversy.     So  far 


33 

as  a  conclusion  lias  been  reached,  it  is  to  thi'(nv  doubt 
on  the  wbole  seven.  Some  critics  consider  the  three  in 
Syriac  as  tiie  only  genuine  epistles  of  Ignatius  ;  others 
can  see  no  sufficient  reason  for  excepting  the  tliree  from 
the  sweeping  condemnation  of  forgery  passed  upon  the 
rest. 

Although  it  seems  most  probable  that  some  genuine 
letters  of  Ignatius  constituted  tlie  foundation  of  the 
structure,  it  has  been  utterly  ruined  for  direct  use  in  his- 
tory.    Only  indirectly  can  its  evidence  be  of  an^^  value. 

The  spirit  of  the  seven  epistles  is  that  of  inordinate 
hierarchical  pretension,  such  as  that  the  "  Deacons  are  to 
be  reverenced  as  Jesus  Christ,  the  Bishop,  as  God  the 
Father,  and  the  Presbyters  as  the  Sanhedrim  of  God, 
and  college  of  the  apostles." 

2.  The  second  century  from  the  end  of  its  tirst  quarter 
onward,  was  a  period  fertile  in  heresies.  Without  a 
systematic  theology  to  sustain  and  restrain  them,  and 
with  a  terminology  general  and  undefined,  men  ran  wild 
in  speculation.  Early  christians  uninspired  had  no  more 
certaint}'  of  being  always  in  the  right  than  christians  of 
later  days  ;  and  from  lack  of  experience  were  more  likelj' 
to  make  mistakes. 

Knowledge  of  the  heresies  of  that  time,  especially  of 
Gnosticism,  is  best  obtained  from  Irenaeus  who  came 
from  Smyrna  into  Gaul  as  a  missionary,  and  after  the 
death  of  Pothinus  in  177,  became  bisliop  of  the  church 
in  Lyons,  where  he  continued  to  labor  until  his  death. 
The  best  exponent  of  Montanism  is  Tertullian. 

During  this  period  the  principal  efforts  of  christian 
wi'iters  were  addressed  to  evidences  of  the  truth  of  their 
religion,  and  of  its  benign  effects  upon  private  life  and  the 
order  of  society,  and  to  counteract  the  progress  of  heresy. 
The  oldest,  and  still  the  best  of  the  creeds,  called  the 
Apostles'  is  now  mentioned.  It  occurs  in  various  forms 
in  Irenaeus,  Tertullian  and  Origen.  And  from  the  fact 
that  it  does  appear  under  such  a  variety  of  forms,  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  apostolic  in  any  other 
sense  than  that  of  presenting  a  summary  of  the  Apostles' 
teaching. 

3.  Though  christians  had  their  honored  traditions, 
Scripture  was  the  standard  of  their  faith.    It  is  continually 


34 

quoted  in  their  writin2:.s.  Their  f'tuniliarity  with  it  was 
very  remarkable.  Enscbins  speaks  of  persons  who  con  hi 
repeat  at  will  any  required  passage  from  either  the  Old 
or  Xew  Testament. 

The  Greek  originals  of  the  New  Testament  were  gen- 
erally in  use,  both  in  the  East  and  West,  and  the  Septu- 
agint,  or  Old  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament.  But 
translations,  for  instruction  of  tlie  unlearned,  were  at  an 
early  date  made  into  Latin.  One  of  the  oldest,  perhaps, 
of  those  versions  was  the  Itala,  which  in  course  of  time 
came  to  be  very  highly  esteemed  and  commonly  used. 
Another  Latin  version  it  is  thought  existed  in  Gaul ;  and 
a  third  must  have  been  made  within  the  same  period  for 
the  use  of  the  churches  in  Africa. 

4.  External  uniformity  was  not  enforced  over  the 
churches  by  any  central  authority,  nor  by  any  all-compre- 
hending general  government.  Coordinate  churches  held 
more  or  less  intercourse  by  letter,  and  by  transfer  of  mem- 
bers from  one  to  another,  and  in  cases  of  common  danger, 
churches  of  the  same  province,  or  even  of  more  exten- 
sive tracts  of  country,  held  councils  or  conferences 
together.  And  all  the  churches  treated  each  other  as 
members  of  one  great  commonwealth,  and  all  adhered  to 
fundamentally  the  same  system  of  polity,  discipline  and 
worship.  And  all  claimed  the  right  of  interfering  with 
remonstrance  and  reproof  where  any  one  had  departed 
from  the  common*  standard. 

3. — Christian   Schools. 

Another  section  of  this  period  of  church  history  is 
marked  by  the  rise  to  distinction  of  the  great  christian 
schools,  whereb}-  the  character  of  learning,  or  erudition 
is  for  the  first  time  attached  to  Christian  literature.  That 
may  be  considered  as  the  principal  feature  of  church  pro- 
gress until  the  rise  of  the  controversy  on  episcopal  rights 
and  prerogatives.  The  section  begins  with  the  persecu- 
tion under  Septimius  Severus  in  202,  and  closes  witli  the 
legalizing  of  Christianity  by  Gallienus  in  261. 

The  men  whose  lives  and  labors  express  the  special 
purpose  of  the  period  are  its  great  scholars  and  theolog- 
ians; in  Greek,  Pantaenus,  Julius  Africanus,  Ilippolytus, 


35 

and  others;  and  in  tlie  Latin,  Tertullian,  jMiuntins  Felix 
and  Cvprian.  The  qnarters  in  which  christian  learning 
appeared  wilh  greatest  distinction  were  Egy[>t,  Syria, 
Asia  Minor  and  Xorth  Africa  :  and  chief  of  all,  the 
great  emporium  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt. 

From  earliest  date  in  the  history  of  the  church  it  was 
customary  to  provide  instruction  for  children  and  con- 
verts from  heathenism.  The  method  employed  was  chiefly 
oral,  although  no  douht  books  were  also  used.  The  term 
y.azrj'/^ecv,  or  xu-r^-^c^io,  was  employed  in  relation  to  it.  The 
name  given  to  the  work  was  xar;j';fiy(TfC,  iind  the  persons  so 
instructed  were  '/.azr^youiievot,  &c. 

Besides  these  schools,  a  more  advanced  education  was 
provided  for  those  who  were  to  be  ministers  of  the  gospel. 

Of  all  the  churcli  schools  both  for  catechumens  and 
for  ministers  the  most  eminent  were  those  of  Antioch  and 
of  Alexandria,  and  although  not  so  much  is  said  about 
the  schools  in  Carthage,  that  city  was  distinguished  by 
its  gifted  and  learned  men. 

Athenagorns,  one  of  the  primitive  apologists,  is  men- 
tioned as  a  teacher  in  Alexandria  in  the  second  century. 
But  it  was  when  Pantaenus  and  his  pupil  Clement  were 
united  in  the  management  of  its  instructions,  in  the  first 
years  of  tlie  third  century,  that  it  began  to  take  its  place 
at  the  head  of  christian  scliools. 

It  was  distinguished  from  the  Mouseion,  that  is,  the 
polytheistic  university  of  the  Ptolemies,  by  the  name 
Didascateion.  There  christian  theology  was  first  subjected 
to  scientific  treatment,  in  the  exigencies  of  catechetical 
instruction  and  of  apologetics,  in  defence  against  Jews, 
heretics,  and  heathen.  Alexandria  was  at  once  the  chief 
seat  of  Polytheistic  and  of  Jewish  learning,  and  from  it 
i3sued  the  most  elaborate  and  ingeniously  constructed 
Gnosticism.  The  reputation  of  the  christian  school,  built 
up  by  Pantaenus  and  Clement,  was  sustained  by  the 
uncommon  intellectual  endowments  of  Origen,  by  far 
the  most  laborious  man  of  his  day. 

After  the  withdrawal  of  Origen  in  231,  the  Dldasca- 
leion  was  conducted  by  his  pupil  Heraclas  until  233,  and 
until  248,  by  Dionysius,  whose  reputation  in  ancient  times 
w^as  equal  to  that  of  Clement  and  Origen.     In  those  men 


36 

did  the  chrisrian  scliool  of  Alexandria  see  the  highest 
point  ot"  her  erudition.  Mo-^t  of  their  writings  ha\e 
perished,  except  of  the  two  last  named.  Clement  is  most 
valnal)le  in  the  field  of  paedagogic  and  antiquities, 
Origen,  in  that  of  Biblical  seholai-ship  and  tlieology. 
His  views  of  doctrine  guided  the  thinking  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  ministry  for  many  generations,  and  some  of 
the  most  bitterly  del)ated  heresies  had  their  root  in  his 
teaching. 

iNIeanwhile  the  Syrian  sciiool,  which  had  its  seat  at 
Antioch,  was  rising  towards  that  eminence,  which  it 
matured  a  hundred  3'ears  later.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
third  century  its  greatest  ornament  was  Julius  Africanus, 
who  was  not  however  a  native  of  Antioch,  but  of  Emrnaus 
in  Palestine,  where  most  of  his  life  was  spent.  His 
principal  work  was  Annals  of  the  world  from  tlie  crea- 
tion, of  which  only  parts  are'  extant.     He  died  in  232. 

2.  After  the  death  of  Commodus,in  192,  we  enter  upon 
a  new  period  of  imperial  liistory.  From  the  death  of 
Julius  Cfesar,  regard  for  him  had  conferred  the  accumu- 
lated honors  upon  his  legal  heir,  and  as  long  as  adoption 
continued  the  succession  the  empire  was  hererlitary  in  his 
family.  With  the  death  of  Nero  tliat  canse  to  an  end;  and 
the  power  of  appointment  to  the  highest  office  was  grasped 
by  the  army.  Corrected  early  by  the  accession  of  the 
Flavian  family,  that  evil  was  successfully  repelled  for  a 
much  longer  time  by  the  wise  method  of  Nerva,  which 
secured  a  steady  rule  until  the  death  of  Commodus. 
Then,  all  check  u}:)on  election  by  the  army  being  removed, 
the  decline  of  Imperial  authority  began.  Pertinax  was 
raised  to  the  throne,  but  retained  it  only  three  months. 
Didius  Julian  us  purchased  it  by  a  large  bounty  to  the 
Pretorian  guard  ;  but  lost  it  together  with  his  life  in 
about  two  months.  More  reliable  military  support  sus- 
tained other  candidates,  among  whom  Septimius  Severiis 
with  the  army  of  Illyricum  proved  successful.  The  Pre- 
torian guards  were  disbanded,  and  Severus  organized  in 
their  stead  a  new  force,  more  numerous,  and  for  himself 
more  reliable.  He  proved  a  stern,  but  successful  ruler, 
both  in  peace  and  war.  After  a  campaign  of  great 
exposure  in  Britain,  he  died  at  York,  in  211,  having 
reisrned  from  198. 


37 

III  the  first  years  of  Sevcrns,  Christians  suffered  only 
from  the  animosity  of  the  heathen  populace  and  some  of 
the  provincial  o;overnors.  But  in  202  an  imperial  edict 
was  issued  forbidding  any  who  were  heatlien  to  become 
christian.  Of  course  it  bore  heaviest  upon  those  who 
conducted  christian  worshipandthe  schools  of  the  church. 
It  was  thus  that  Clement  and  Pantaenns,  were  driven 
from  their  work  in  Alexandria,  that  Leonidas,  the  father 
of  Origen,  was  brought  to  the  block, and  that  Potamiaena, 
Perpetna,  and  Felicitas,'and  many  others  sealed  their 
testimon}-  with  their  blood. 

In  the  reign  of  CaracaHa.  the  son  and  successor  of 
Severus,  the  Roman  empire  began  to  experience  the 
effects  of  waning  power.  The  empei-or  impoverished  his 
subjects  to  pamper  the  army,  and  purchased  the  privilege 
of  peace  from  his  enemies.  Having  made  himself  odious 
at  Rome,  he  extended  Roman  citizenship  to  all  the  sub- 
jects of  the  empire,  and  withdrew  from  the  city.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  Macrinus.  Prefect  of  the  Pretorian 
guard,  (in  217.)  The  assassin  took  his  place,  but  was 
slain  next  year  b}^  the  soldiers,  who  set  up  Heliogabahis, 
a  boy  of  fourteen  years  of  age.  At  the  end  of  four 
years  the  boy-emperor,  precocious  in  profligacy,  met  the 
fate  he  had  ordered  for  many  othei-s.  In  222  Alexander 
Severus  succeeded  to  the  throne.  One  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  revoke  all  edicts  against  cliristians.  His  mother 
Julia  Mammaea  was  so  friendly  to  tliem  that  many 
believed  her  one  of  their  number.  The  liberality  of 
Alexander  was  extended  to  the  great  and  good  of  every 
name.  His  domestic  chapel  contained  busts  standing  for 
Abraham, for  Christ,  Orpheus,  and  Apollonius  of  Tyana; 
and  the  golden  rnle  of  Christ  he  had  inscribed  upon  the 
walls  of  his  palace. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  Persian  nationality 
was  revived  under  Ardishir  Babegan,  who  overthrew  the 
Parthians,  renewed  the  t.laims  of  the  successors  of  Cyrus, 
and  prepared  to  drive  the  Romans  from  Asia.  The  Aves- 
tan  religion  was  restored,  and  Christians  were  driven  back 
into  the  empire,  or  subjected  to  severe  oppression — the 
beginning  of  long  continued  persecution  in  that  quarter. 
Sassanide   princes  recognized   no   such  aflinity  between 


38 

their  degenerate  Avestanisrn  and  the  gospel  of  Christ, 
as  their  hero  Cyrus  had  recognized  between  the  Avestan 
faitli  of  his  day  and  the  religion  of  the  Jews. 

The  first  Persian  invasion  Alexander  successfully 
resisted  ;  and  had  turned  his  victorious  arms  against 
enemies  in  tlie  north,  wlien  he  was  murdered.  He  had 
reigned  thirteen  years.  Maximin,  a  Thracian,  was  ele- 
vated by  the  arn)y.  He  exhibited  his  hatred  to  the 
christians  by  indulging  the  heathen  populace  in  their 
cruelties  to  them,  and  directing  his  own  attacks  upon 
their  clergy.  At  the  end  of  about  three  years  (238)  he 
was  slain  by  his  own  soldiers. 

In  this  instance  the  senate  at  Rome  disputed  the  right 
of  the  army  in  the  north  to  appoint  a  master  for  the 
empire,  and  favored  the  election  ot  Gordian,  ])i'oconsul 
of  Africa ;  and  when  he  wiis  slain,  transff^rred  their 
preference  to  a  younger  member  of  his  faiuily,  a  boy  of 
twelve  years.  At  the  end  of  six  years  the  younger  Gor- 
dian was  murdered  by  order  of  Philij)  the  Arabian,  who 
assumed  the  purple  in  his  stead. 

Under  the  jurisdiction  of  Gordian  the  churches  were 
not  molested;  and  Philip  was  even  friendly.  In  249  he 
was  defeated  in  battle  with  Decius,  and  slain.  Decius 
marked  his  reign  by  issuing,  in  249,  an  order  to  all  gov- 
ernors of  provinces  to  return  to  tlie  ancient  state  religion, 
and  to  enforce  it  by  the  severest  penalties,  thereby  insti- 
tuting one  r)f  the  most  sanguinary  persecutions  that  the 
churcli  has  ever  been  called  to  endure.  It  extended  to 
the  whole  empire.  It  was  also  occasion  of  much  subse- 
q'uent  controversy  touching  the  discipline  of  those  who 
had  succumbed  to  suft'ering,  or  fear. 

Decius,  slain  in  battle  with  the  Goths,  in  251,  was 
succeeded  by  Gall  us,  who  renewed  the  persecution  after 
a  brief  relaxation.  But,  in  253,  Gallus  was  slain  by  his 
soldiers.  His  successor,  Emilianus,  met  the  same  fate 
in  three  months.  Valerian  was  raised  to  the  throne,  and 
held  it  until  260,  when  he  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Persians. 

Persecution,  restrained  in  tlie  first  years  of  Valerian, 
was  revived  in  257.  By  Gallienus,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Valerian,    it  was    brought    to    an    end,  in    261,    and 


39 

Christianity  recoijnized  as  a  lawful  religion,  received  for 
the  first  time  a  title  to  governmental  toleration.  Thence 
forward,  until  the  time  of  Diocletian,  the  Christians  suf- 
fered little  molestation. 

3.  Christians  were  still  the  minority  of  the  population 
upon  the  whole;  but  in  some  provinces  they  were 
'more  numerous  than  the  heathen,  and  tlieir  continual 
increase  was  a  matter  of  frequent  remark.  They  could 
no  longer  be  treated  with  contempt.  Tliey  were  fast 
becoming  a  great  party  in  the  empire,  threatening  to 
overpower  the  lieathen,  and  extinguish  the  religion  and 
observances  of  their  fathers,  all  that  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  honor  and  revere. 

'No  longer  could  the  charges  of  disloyalty,  or  of 
immoral  conduct  be  advanced  against  christians ;  but 
that  of  atheism,  as  the  heathen  meant  it,  was  fully  estab- 
lished. Their  cause  was  distinctly  apprehended  to  be 
death  to  the  worship  of  the  gods,  and  to  the  very  belief 
in  their  existence. 

Christian  influence  had  been  operating  so  long  that  it 
had  wrought  an  important  change  upon  the  moral  char- 
acter of  society  in  general.  Vices  once  so  common  as  to 
be  little  blamed,  were  now  branded  with  disgrace;  and 
certain  abominations  once  practised  in  Heathen  temples, 
and  esteemed  essential  parts  of  worship,  had  ceased;  and 
were  now  regarded  as  corruptions,  from  which  Polythe- 
ism had  purified  itself  in  returning  to  its  own  standards. 
That  Christianity  had  some  good  in  it  was  not  now  denied; 
but  it  was  urged  that  Polytheism  had  more,  and  that  it 
maintained  a  reverence  for  the  gods,  and  a  ritual  worship 
indispensable  to  the  completeness  of  the  service  men 
owed  them.  It  was  argued  that  the  virtues  of  Christians 
were  disfigured  by  a  low  and  tasteless  manner  of  life,  a 
barbarous  form  of  worship  and  rude  fanatical  spirit,  and 
that  by  their  Atheism  they  were  bringing  down  the 
wrath  of  the  gods  upon  the  empire.  The  attitude  of  the 
most  intelligent  heathen  towards  Christianity  and  their 
own  religion  was  not  unlike  that  of  the  Bramo  Somaj  in 
India,  at  the  present  time  :  and  the  Neo-Platonic  philoso- 
phj'  was  accepted  as  their  guide. 

Aramonius  Saccas,  the  founder  of  that  philosophy 
died  in  248,  at  the  age  of  more  than   eighty  years.     His 


40 

system  was  one  in  wliicli  some  elements  of  Christianity 
and  of  oriental  s[>ecuhition  were  engrafted  upon  the  stock 
of  Plaronistn. 

The  heathen  liad  also  their  wonder-working  sage,  in 
the  Pythagorean  philosopher,  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  whom 
some  of  them  set  up  as  a  rival  to  Christ.  Apollonius 
was  a  real  person,  who  lived  about  the  time  of  Christ, 
and  obtained  some  distinction  in  letters.  A  work  pro- 
fessing to  give  an  account  of  his  life  was  written  about 
the  year  220,  by  Philostratus,  at  the  instance  of  Julia 
Domna,  the  wife  of  Septimius  Severus,  which  is  full  of 
extravagant  fictions,  attributing  to  him  miracles  like  those 
of  Christ,  but  also  most  heathenish  falsehood  and  decep- 
tion. 

4.  Itwas  still  around  the  question  of  the  wonderful  per- 
son of  Christ  that  the  theological  discussions  of  christians 
arrayed  themselves.  But  the  principal  point  w-as  no 
longer  whether  his  body  was  real  or  not;  it  was  now  of 
his" Deity.  And  the  bearing  of  the  controversy  was 
determined  by  the  opinions  of  those  who  taught  tlie 
singleness  of  person  in  Godhead,  called  by  the  general 
name  Monarchianism. 

That  style  of  doctrine  presented  itself  in  several 
forms,  one  of  which  was  but  a  variation  upon  Ebionism, 
teaching  that  Christ  was  only  a  man  conceived  by  miracu- 
lous means,  and  endowed  with  the  divine  wisdom  froni 
his  birth.  The  power  of  Cod  was  conferred  upon  him  in 
greater  degree  than  upon  the  prophets,  or  any  other 
human  being.  The  distinction  of  the  party  holding  this 
doctrine  was  due  to  Theodotus,  a  Byzantine,  who  came 
to  Rome  in  tiie  latter  part  of  the  second  century. 

Similar  was  the  teaching  of  Artemon  about  the  same 
time  in  Rome.  Although  rejected  by  christians  generally 
and  by  some  eminent  writers,  it  continued  to  be  defended 
by  a  party  through  the  first  half  of  the  third  century. 
It  was  preached  by  Beryllua  bishop  of  Bostra  as  late  as 
244.  But  at  a  synod  in  Bostra  that  year,  he  listened  to 
his  own  refutation  by  Origen,  and  recanted. 

A  second  variety  of  Monarchianism  was  that  which 
claimed  all  deity  for  Christ.  The  Father  and  the  Son 
were  only  different  modes  of  designating  the  same   sub- 


41 

ject.  The  one  God,  who  in  other  respects  is  the  Father, 
becomes  in  his  appearance  in  human  nature,  tlie  Son. 
Jesus  was  divine  by  the  indwelling  of  the  only  person  in 
Godhead. 

This  doctrine  was  first  preached  in  Rome  by  Praxeas 
who  came  from  Asia  Minor  about  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Commodus  (192.)  By  opposition  to  Montanus  he  drew 
upon  himself  the  censure  of  TertuUian,  who  charged  his 
doctrine  with  seeking  to  commend  itself  as  teaching  the 
monarchy  of  God.  The  expression  has  given  a  general 
name  for  that  class  of  heresies. 

For  holding  doctrines  similar  to  those  of  Praxeas, 
Noetus  was  excommunicated  in  Smyrna,  in  230.  Some- 
times this  class  of  monarchians  were  called  Patripassian, 
according  to  a  saying  of  TertuUian  about  Praxeas,  that 
"  two  works  of  the  Devil  he  wrought  in  Rome,  he  drove 
out  prophecy  and  brought  in  heresy,  put  the  Holy  Spirit 
to  flight  and  crucified  the  Father." 

Another  doctrine  of  kindred  nature  was  that  of 
Sabellius,  a  presbyter  in  Ptolemais,  between  250  and  260, 
who  taught  that  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Spirit  were 
ijot,  in  the  common  acceptation,  different  persons,  but 
different  manifestations  of  the  same  person.  Christ  was 
divine,  not  as  an  emanation  from  God,  not  by  indwelling 
of  the  Father  ;  but  as  that  particular  manifestation  called 
the  Son.  We  conceive  of  God  in  his  self-existant,  crea- 
tive and  all-sui)porting  power,  as  tlie  Father;  in  the  illu- 
minating power  of  the  Logos,  as  the  Son,  and  in  his 
enlivening  power  in  the  hearts  of  believers,  as  the  Holy 
Spirit;  and  thu«  have  three  divine  energies  in  one  person. 

Moreover  Sabellius  believed  that  the  man  Jesus  was 
not  a  common  man,  but  specially  adapted  for  that  union 
with  Deity. 

By  the  churches  in  general  the  doctrine  of  a  trinity 
in  unity  of  the  Godhead  was  held  as  firmly  as  at  any 
other  time  ;  but  discussion  of  the  subject  was  working 
towards  a  logical  expression,  notyet  satisfactoril}' attained. 

Controversy  also  arose  out  of  the  method  of  scriptural 
interpretation  adopted  by  the  Alexandrian  School,  and 
especially  by  Origen.     That  method  recognized  a  three- 


42 

fold  meaiiinsr  in  Scripture,  namely  the  litei-al,  or  histori- 
cal, the  moral,  and  the  mystical.  By  urging  the  mystical 
meaning  of  certain  texts  Origen  was  charged  with  some- 
times denying  the  historical;  and  the  method,  if  it  had 
some  advocates,  also  encountered  strong  opposition. 

5.  Origen  in  his  tlieology  also  gave  occasion  to  much 
controversy.  His  views  were  expressed  m  commentaries 
on  Scripture,  and  in  separate  treatises,  as  well  as  in  a  sys- 
tematic work  on  theology,  called  De  Privcipiis.  That 
work  was  assailed  from  various  quarters  as  containing 
heresy,  it  was  also  defended  by  some  of  the  ablest  writ- 
ers of  that  and  the  succeeding  century.  It  was  both 
accused  and  defended  on  the  chai-ge  of  Platonism. 
Although  obviously  designed  to  controvert  Gnostic  specu- 
lations, it  was  colored  to  some  extent  liy  them.  The 
principal  points  o^  his  system  were: 

{a)  That  God  is  everhistingly  active,  creating  fi'om  and 
to  all  eternity. 

[h)  That  all  intellectual  beings  are  originally  equal, 
and  clothed  in  bodies,  God  being  the  only  disembodied 
spirit.  The  dift'erences  among  men  are  due  to  their 
remaining  holy  or  sinking  in  sin.  But  all  are  free  to 
return  to  righteousness,  even  the  Devil  is  capable  of 
atnelioration  and  pardon. 

(c)  The  Logos,  tlie  Mediator  of  all  divine  agency,  and 
inferior  to  the  supreme  God,  did  not  proceed  from  the 
essence  of  the  Father,  as  an  emanation,  but  as  a  constant 
ray  of  the  divine  glory,  was  generated  by  the  will  of  God 
from  eternity. 

♦       {(i)  The  Holy  Spirit,  and  all  other  beings  were  created 
b}'  the  Logos. 

{e)  In  Jesus  the  Logos  united  himself  to  a  real  body 
and  a  human  soul,  both  specially  prepared  for  him. 

(/)  To  attain  the  highest  virtue,  a  man  must  be  free 
from  all  restraints  of  sensuality,  and  of  self-interest,  hav- 
ing for  his  aim  to  be  like  God. 

[g)  Alexandrian  theologians  held  that  the  resurrection 
body  will  not  be  of  earthly  material,  but  spiritual  and 
incorruptible. 

(A)  They  accordingly  rejected  the  expectations  of  sen- 
sual chiliasm. 


43 

Origeii  held  that  Christ  is  of  "  a  nature  niiclwa}' 
between  tlie  uncreated  and  that  of  all  creatures."  All 
creatures  dei-ive  their  being  from  the  Father  through  the 
Son.     Tlie  Son  proceeds  from  the  will  of  the  Father, 

Dionysius,  the  pupil  and  successor  of  Origen  in  the 
christian  school,  in  his  attempt  to  develop  the  idea  of  his 
master  more  precisely,  was  led  to  designate  the  Divine 
Logos  as  created  of  the  Father  from  all  eternity,  a  step 
from  which  he  afterwards  withdrew. 

6.  It  was  commonly  believed  that  after  tlieresurrection 
there  would  be  an  eai'thly  kingdom  of  Christ,  in  which 
the  saints  should,  for  a  thousand  years,  enjoy  much  hap- 
piness. That  was  to  be  the  great  Sabbath  of  the  world's 
history,  and  was  to  occur,  as  some  thought,  after  the 
lapse  of  six  tliousand  years  from  tlie  creation.  A  small 
part}',  deriving  its  origin  from  Cerinthus,  expected  that 
milleuninm  as  a  period  for  enjoyment  of  sensual  plea- 
sures. A  literal  acceptance  of  tlie  millennium  described 
in  the  book  of  Revelation  was  insisted  on  by  ISTepos  and 
Coracion,  Egyptian  bishops.  But  their  teaching  on  that 
point  was  opposed  by  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  so  effectu- 
ally that  before  a  synod  held  at  Arsinoe  in  255,  Coracion 
professed  himself  convinced  of  his  error  and  renounced 
it.  Subsequently  through  the  efforts  of  Dionysius  and 
others  that  style  of  chiliasm  was  abandoned  in  the 
eastern  churches. 

7.  During  this  period  we  find  more  frequent  mention  of 
edifices  exclusively  used  for  christian  worship.  In  202 
it  appears  that  there  was  a  church  building  in  Edessa. 
Alexander  Severus  gave  a  piece  of  land  in  Rome  for  a 
christian  place  of  worship,  and  in  the  edict  of  Gallienus 
their  places  of  worship  are  directed  to  be  restored  to 
christians.  Such  an  edifice  was  called  a  place  of  prayer 
(TTpoaeuxzrjptop),  or  the  Lord's  house  [orxo^  xufjio.y.d^,  or  oi/.ca 
xoiJcaxTj,  or  later  ro  xofjiaxov)^  or  the  house  of  the  meeting 
(oFzoc  ixxXr^acaj;  or  simpl^y  ixxlr^oto).  From  early  in  the 
third  century,  the  idea  of  constructing  such  houses  more 
or  less  after  the  model  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  took 
possession  of  the  minds  of  christians  in  some  quarters. 
And  where  that  was   carried    out,  worship   began   to  be 


44 

celebrated  in  a  more  formal  maimer,  and  a  greater  dis- 
tinction to  be  made  between  the  ministry  and  the  con- 
gregation. Terms  also  belonging  to  the  temple  and  the 
temple  service  gradually  cre|;)t  in. 

Holy  days,  from  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
were  gradually  multiplied.  The  churches  in  some  places 
began  to  hold  meetings  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  the 
days  of  the  Lord's  betrayal  and  crucifixion.  And  the 
observation  of  the  Lord's  Passion  and  of  Pentecost  was 
fully  established,  in  the  west,  as  well  as  in  the  east,  before 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  The  manner  of  that 
observation  gave  rise  to  a  controversy  of  some  warmth. 
The  churches  of  Asia  Minor  observed  the  feast  on  the 
14th  of  the  first  Jewish  month,  Nisan,  and  on  the  third 
day  after  that,  the  memorial  of  the  resurrection,  follow- 
ing closely  the  historical  order,  although  the  day  of  the 
month  did  not,  of  course,  in  most  years  correspond  to 
the  day  of  the  week,  on  which  the  Lord  suffered.  The 
church  of  Rome,  on  the  other  hand,  with  those  of  Alexan- 
dria, Jerusalem,  Tyre  and  Cjfisarea  of  Palestine  adhered 
strictly  to  the  days  of  the  week  though  they  might  not 
correspond  always  to  the  same  days  of  the  month. 
Touching  this  difference,  Polycarp,  on  a  visit  to  Rome 
in  162,  had  conference  with  the  bishop  of  Rome,  but 
neither  of  them  persuaded  the  other,  nor  thought  it  of 
such  importance  as  to  impair  their  fraternal  affection. 
But  about  196,  Victor  bishop  of  Rome,  assuming  such 
pre-eminence  as  the  imperial  city  exercised  in  civil  mat- 
ters, and  claiming  superior  place  in  the  church  as  succes- 
#;or  of  St.  Peter,  undertook  to  compel  the  churtdies  of 
Asia  Minor  into  compliance  with  the  western  practice, 
by  the  terrors  of  excommunication.  He  was  quickly 
admonished  of  his  error  by  several  bishops,  in  both  east 
and  west,  among  the  rest,  by  Polycrates  of  Ephesus,  and 
Irenaeus  of  Lyons.  The  case  ended  in  leaving  each 
church  to  decide  for  itself,  until  the  council  of  Nice,  129 
years  later,  acting  for  all  the  churches,  declared  in  favor 
of  the  western  custom.  The  Easter  observance  assumed 
greater  proportions  in  the  course  of  the  third  century. 
The  chief  points  being  the  crucifixion,  the  resurrection. 


45 

and  the  desc^uit  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost, the  first  was  commemorated  by  fiisting,  the  second' 
and  the  third  by  festivals,  and  the  interval  between  them 
as  the  Sabbath  of  the  christian  year. 

Long  continued,  or  at  least,  frequently  recurring  per- 
secution had  constrained  the  christians,  in  many  quar- 
ters, to  keep  their  times  and  places  of  worship  secret. 
Secrecy  began  to  be  regarded  as  an  essential  element  of 
some  parts  of  their  service,  which  were  spoken  of  as 
mysteries.  During  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
it  was  thought  proper  that  all  heathen,  and  unbaptized 
spectators  should  be  excluded.  At  Rome,  ISTaples,  S3^ra- 
cuse,  and  some  other  places,  christians  found  refuge  in 
caverns  beneath  the  ground,  where  they  both  conducted 
their  worship  and  buried  their  dead.  Some  of  those 
catacumbae  (catacombs)  have  been  opened  within  recent 
time. 

Inordinate  importance  was  now  attached  to  martyr- 
dom by  the  churches  generally  ;  Origen  went  the  length 
of  attributing  to  it  a  dignity  and  efficacy  similar  to  the 
death  of  Christ.  In  his  estimation,  persecution  was  a 
real  good,  and  its  cessation  contemplated  as  an  evil.  The 
intercession  of  martyrs  was  thought  to  be  of  avail  on 
high. 

Exorcism  of  those  to  be  baptized  is  now  men- 
tioned, that  is  certain  ceremonies  and  prayers  were  used 
for  the  purpose  of  casting  out  the  evil  spirits  who  were 
supposed  to  hold  all  unbaptized  persons  under  their 
power. 

The  practice  of  asceticism  was  increasing,  but  was 
yet  entirely  a  matter  of  individual  choice. 

4. — Beginning  of  Christian  Literature  in  the 
Latin  Language. 

In  the  last  years  of  the  second  century  we  first  meet 
with  christian  writings  in  Latin.  They  belong  to  the 
church  of  Northern  Africa,  and  are  the  earlier  works  of 
Tertullian.  The  history  of  the  North  African  church 
begins  with  that  eminent  Latin  father.  Already  it  con- 
sisted of  a  great  number  of  prosperous  christian  com- 
munities. 


46 

Tertullian  api)eai's  first  as  an  apologist  about  190.  lie 
was  a  native  of  Cartlia<re,  son  of  a  procotisnlar  centurion, 
became  a  presbyter  in  tli-  cliiircli  of  his  native  city,  and 
wrote  a  great  number  of  works  in  the  christian  cause, 
chiefly  in  the  reigns  of  Severus  and  Caracalhi,  between 
193  and  217.  'After  lie  had  passed  middle  life  he 
embraced  the  ojiinions  of  Montanus,  with  whicli  his  later 
writings  are  imbued.  Ahout  the  same  time  Minutius 
Felix,  a  Roman  lawyer,  wrote  an  apologetic  work  in 
defence  of  Christianity  in  f(»rm  of  a  dialogue,  which 
he  called  Octavius:  and  Caius,  a  presbyter  at  Rome, 
wrote  a  treatise  against  Montanism,  while  Novatian,  also 
a  presbj'ter  in  the  same  church,  defended  that  faction,  and 
introduced  it  into  the  west  of  Enr<^pe. 

After  the  death  of  Tertullian,  tlie  most  eminent  leader 
of  ecclesisistical  o])inion  was  Cyprian,  also  a  native  of 
Afi'ica,  and  boi-n  about  tlie  l)eginning  of  the  third 
century.  Until  middle  life  lie  was  a  heathen.  His 
education  had  been  careful.  In  his  profession  .of  rhet- 
oric he  was  successful  and  amassed  considerable,  for- 
tune. Upon  his  conversion  about  246,  he  sold  all,  and  dis- 
tributed the  price  to  the  poor.  ISText  year  lie  was  ordained 
presbyter  in  Carthage,  and  in  248,  elected  bishop.  In 
the  persecution  under  Decius  he  was  marked  out  for  a 
victim,  but  succeeded  in  eluding  arrest.  Eight  years 
later,  in  the  persecution  under  Valerian,  he  was  singled 
out  with  such  purpose  that  escape,  if  practicable,  was  not 
within  what  lie  deemed  the  bounds  of  duty  to  his  people. 
He  suffered  deatli  foi-  the  profession  of  his  faith  in  the 
♦year  258.  Much  of  Cyprian's  attention  was  constrained 
to  the  suliject  of  church  government  and  disci[iline,  and 
to  them  do  the  most  important  of  his  wi'itings  pertain. 

2.  In  the  terrible  persecution  under  Decius,  and  con- 
tinued by  Gallus,  many  cliristians  fell  away,  and  denied 
•their  faith  in  order  to  save  their  lives.  The}'  sacrificed 
to  heathen  gods,  oftered  incense,  or  procured  certificates 
from  the  magistrates  that  they  were  not  christians,  and 
were  designated  accordingly  as  sacr/Jicad,  ilmrifcali,  or 
libellatici.  When  the  persecution  had  passed  over,  many 
who  liad  thus  escaped  made  application  to  be  taken  back 


^      47 

into  the  church.  Ir  became  a  matter  of  no  little  fliffi- 
cnltv  to  settle  the  terms  upon  wiiich  they  were  to  be  re-ad- 
mitted or  rejected. 

In  the  church  of  northern  Africa,  a  difference  in  the 
presbytery  upon  the  election  of  Cyprian  to  the  bishopric 
of  Carthage,  led  to  the  separation  of  a  minority.  Five 
presbyters,  at  whose  head  was  Novatus,  refused  to 
approve  of  the  election,  and  as  Cyprian  soon  afterwards 
was  driven  from  his  place  by  persecution,  they  proceeded 
to  conduct  their  affairs  without  him.  They  ordained  as 
a  deacon  Felicissimus,  who  subsequently  became  chief  of 
the  party.  The  question  of  the  lapsed  widened  the 
schism.  Cyprian  was  in  favor  of  imposing  a  severe  pro- 
bation upon  those  who  wished  to  return  to  their  place  in 
the  church  ;  Felicissimus  and  his  party  would  re-admit 
them  upon  the  simple  presentation  of  their  petition.  A 
synod  of  the  African  church,  which  met  in  251,  resolved 
to  re-admit  the  lapsed  upon  condition  of  their  repent- 
ance, and  submission  to  such  probationary  exercises  as 
the  church  might  think  proper  in  each  particuhir  case. 

In  the  cliurc'h  of  Rome,  about  the  same  time,  a  similar 
schism  took  place.  On  the  election  of  Cornelius  as 
Bishop,  in  251,  a  minority  of  the  Presbytery  dissented 
on  account  of  his  leniency  towards  the  hipsed,  and  chose 
Novatianus  as  their  bishop.  The  course  adopted  by  them 
touching  the  lapsed  was  that  of  refusing  to  admit  them 
on  any  terms,  holding  as  a  general  principle  that  great 
sins  committed  after  "baptism  should  exclude  from  the 
privileges  of  the  church.  A  considerable  number  of  both 
clergy'and  laity  joined  them,  and  formed  that  party, 
which  either  took  or  accepted  the  name  of  Cathari,  or 
Puritans. 

A  synod  at  Rome,  jn  251  took  action  against  that 
party,  and  in  favor  of  such  a  moderate  course  towards 
the  lapsed  as  that  adopted  by  the  synod  of  Carthage  in 
the  same  year. 

In  the  case  of  both  the  African  and  Roman  schisms 
the  dissenters  defended  their  organization  on  Presbyte- 
rian ground  in  opposition  to  the  high  prelatical  assump- 
tions'of  the  bishops  of  Rome  and  Carthage.     But  it  was 


48 

then  too  late  to  ori|^aiiize  a  snccessfnl  resistance  to  prelacj" 
on  that  gTound,  directly  or  indirectly.  The  question  of 
ministerial  equalit}'  had  alread}'  to  be  debated  on  a  ditter- 
ent  level.  Two  Spanish  bishops,  Basilides  of  Leon  and 
Martial  of  Merida,  were  deposed  by  u  Spanish  Synod,  as 
heingUbellatich  They  applied  to  Stephen,  bishop  of  Rome 
for  his  influence  in  their  favor.  Stephen  assumed  to 
restore  tiiera,  and  received  them  into  communion  with 
his  church.  The  Spanish  church  consulted  that  of  Africa, 
which  at  a  Synod  in  Carthage  censured  the  bishop  of 
Rome  for  participation  in  the  disordeily  conduct  of  the 
deposed  bishops. 

3.  Again,  the  validity  of  baptism  by  heretics  liad  been 
denied  by  the  African  churches,  at  a  council  held  at 
Carthage,  about  the  beginning  of  the  centurj',  and  by 
those  of  Asia  Minor,  in  a  council  at  Iconium  in  235. 

In  Rome,  and  some  other  jilaces  in  the  west,  the 
opposite  view  was  taken,  and  acted  on.  Persons  liaving 
received  heretical  baptism  were  admitted  into  the  com- 
munion of  the  church  by  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the 
bishop.  When  Stephen  became  bishop  in  Rome,  he 
undertook  to  constrain  all  churches  to  conform  to  the 
custom  of  his  own,  and  threatened  to  excommunicate  the 
churches  in  Asia  Minor,  if  they  adhered  to  their  disci- 
pline in  that  respect.  Fii-milian  of  Cpesarea  in  Cappa- 
docia  responded  by  retorting  the  charge  of  schism  upon 
Stephen,  and  sharply  reproving  him  for  his  assumption. 
Stephen  was  also  censured  for  that  act  by  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria.  In  Africa  the  same  view  of  his  conduct  was 
taken  by  the  synod  which  niet  in  Carthage  in  254,  and 
again  b}'  that  of  255.  That  decision  was  communicated 
to  the  bishop  of  Rome  in  a  letter  drawn  up  by  Cyprian, 
who  also  defended  the  equality  of  all  bishops,  Stephen's 
answer  to  the  African  bishops  wa<  overbearing;  and  his 
threat  was  repeated  that  the  Roman  church  would  sepa- 
rate from  their  communion.  In  256  another  synod  at 
Carthage  affirmed  the  action  of  its  predecessors  ;  and 
Cyprian  took  occasion  more  fully  to  state  the  views 
which  he  and  the  other  members  of  the  synod  held  touch- 
ing the  equality  of  bishops. 


49 

From  those  statements  it  appears  that  a  new  epocli 
has  been  reached  in  the  history  of  the  ministry.  The 
distinction  between  presbyter  and  bishop  is  not  only 
clearly  made,  but  the  bisliops  of  some  great  cities, 
especially  of  Rome,  are  beginning  to  assume  superiority 
over  other  bishops.  The  opposition  is  mainly  upon  an 
episcopal  basis.  Rome  is  now  spokea  of  as  the  chair  of 
St,  Peter,  not  in  the  sense  that  Peter  was  ever  bishop 
there;  but  that  during  a  visit  he  had  directed  the  affairs 
of  the  church,  as  an  apostle.  The  pretension  of  the 
Roman  bishop  is  not  admitted  by  the  bishops  of  the  east, 
of  Alexandria,  of  North  Africa  or  oi  Spain.  But  in 
opposing  it  on  the  equality  of  bishops,  episcopacy  as  a 
separate  rank  in  the  ministry  is  more  fully  defined  than 
ever  before.  By  Cyprian  the  essentials  of  the  church  are 
held  to  consist  in  a  particular  oi-ganization,  and  a  con- 
nection with  bishops  in  the  line  of  apostolic  apj»ointment. 
On  this  head  he  coincided  with  many  others  in  his  day  ; 
and  in  defending  it  constructed  the  foundation  for  the 
very  evil  he  was  conti-overting. 

Still,  a  great  number  of  the  bishops,  whose  equality 
was  defended  by  Cyprian,  were  only  pastors  of  single 
congregations.  But  in  the  churches  of  great  cities,  the 
method  of  extension  developed  a  new  feature  of  episco- 
pa«y.  The  principle  that  all  tin.'  christians  of  one  city 
should  form  but  one  cliurch,  after  the  establishment  of  the 
rule  of  but  one  bishop  in  one  church,  inevitably  produced 
prelacy.  For  when  the  church  increased  in  numbers  and 
had  to  diviilc  into  several  C()ngregations  the  one  bishop 
was  constrained  to  employ  presl)yter  assistants  to  con- 
duct worship  at  the  ditfei-ent  places  of  meeting.  And 
these  presbyters  necessarily  became  the  pastors  of  the 
respective  cliarges  over  which  they  were  set.  The  bisliop 
of  such  a  city  church  became  the  chief  over  a  number  of 
pastors,  who  in  rank  were  only  presbyters;  while  the 
bishops  in  small  towns  and  country  places,  where  there 
had  been  no  such  increase  of  numbers  remained  bishops 
over  only  their  single  respective  congregations.  It  vi^as 
natural  that  the  bishop  who  presided  over  the  pastors  of 
several  congregations  should  assume  superiority  over 
him  who  had  pastoral  charge  of  only  one.  Such  is  the 
juncture  at  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  when  even 


50 

the  bishop  of  Eome,  who  chiims  a  ph\ce  of  superiority 
among  bishops,  lias  3'et  no  episcopal  jurisdiction  over 
bishops,  nor  superior  rank  among  them.  It  was  a  state 
of  things  which  could  not  continue.  ]^o  argument,  how- 
ever sti'ong,  for  the  equality  of  bishops,  in  circumstances 
so  different,  could  withstand  the  tendency  to  further  dis- 
crimination of  ranks. 

It  is  also  within  this  period  that  regular  provincial 
councils  come  distinctly  to  notice.  In  the  second  century 
mention  is  often  made  of  councils  in  ditferent  provinces, 
as  those  in  relation  to  Montanisin,  held  at  Hierapolis  in 
Phrygia,  and  at  Anchialus  in  Thrace  ;  in  relation  to  the 
Colarbasians,  held  at  Pergamus  in  152,  on  the  Easter 
observance,  lield  at  Ephesus  196,  and  one  at  Rome  in 
197,  also  at  Jerusalem,  at  Osesarea,  in  Pontus,  at  Lyons, 
in  Osrhoene,  and  in  Corinth.  Tertullian  speaks  of  coun- 
cils as  habitually  held  in  Greece,  and  Firmilian  of  Asia 
Minor  mentions  thera  as  being  of  regular  recurrence ; 
but  of  very  few  in  the  second  century  have  the  dates  been 
recorded.  In  the  third  century-  their  history  is  n^i^re 
definite.  There  were  councils  in  Carthage  in  218  or  222, 
on  baptism  of  heretics;  251,  in  relation  to  Felicissimus; 
252,  on  early  baptism;  253,  on  bnptisni  by  heretics; 
254,  in  relation  to  the  Spanish  bishops,  one  in  255,  aiid 
two  in  1^:56,  relating  to  the  controversy  with  Rome. 

In  the  same  period  there  were  councils  at  Rome  in 
231,  251,  256  and  260.  In  Alexandria  two  are  mentioned 
in  231  and  soon  after,  touching  the  disputes  of  Demetrius 
with  Origen.  Others  ars  mentioned  elsewhere,  as  one  in 
Bostra  in  Arabia,  in  244,  one  at  Zambesa  in  Africa  in  or 
about  240,  at  Iconium  in  230  or  258,  at  Ephesus  in  245, 
in  Achaia,  in  or  about  2o0,  in  jSTarbonne  Gaul  in  255,  or 
260,  and  somewhere  in  Arabia  in  247. 

In  the  first  instance  Synods  held  in  check  the  increas- 
ing pretensions  of  the  bishops  of  great  cities;  but  latterly, 
by  defending  ministerial  e.quality  on  tlie  basis  of  episco- 
pacy, not  of  presbytery,  they  actually  made  the  most 
efiective  support  of  that  ecclesiastical  aristocracy  which 
was  now  assuming  its  position  in  the  churches.  For 
consistently  with  the  municipal  element  of  the  ancient 
church,  and  which  was  fundamental  in  the  ancient  idea 
of  government,  the   presidency  of  a   council    resided   in 


51 

tlie  bishop  of  the  chief  city  of  the  province  in  which   it 
was  held. 

From  heathen  mysteries  some  cliristians  borrowed 
the  idea  of  esoteric  and  exoteric  doctrines.  The  written 
Word  contained  the  exoteric,  or  public  instruction, 
although  it  also  beneath  its  obvious  sense  concealed  a 
higher'mystical  meaning,  wliich  only  those  enlightened 
bj'esoteric  instruction  could  descern.  Certain  things 
were  also  taught  in  secret  to  the  more  advanced  in 
christian  attainment,  which  were  said  to  have  been  com- 
municated by  Christ  to  his  disciples,  but  never  commit- 
mitted  to  writing.  When  we  equire  after  these  <trcana, 
there  is  nothing  to  be  found  but  fanciful  speculation, 
allegorical  treatment  of  Scripture,  or  iiretended  facts  of 
little  account. 

The  sacrament  of  Baptism  was  now  burdened  with 
ceremonies  giving  it  much  of  the  character  of  initiation 
to  mysteries.  And  in  some  churches  none  were  permit- 
ted towitne33  its  administration  who  hadnotbeen  them- 
selves baptized.  In  some  churches,  if  not  generally,  the 
candidate  for  baptism  was  first  exorcised,  to  drive  away 
evil  spirits  from  him.  Then,  after  application  of  the 
water,  the  kiss  of  peace  was  given  him,  and  a  mixture  of 
milk  and  honey  was  administered.  He  was  tlien  anointed 
and  marked  on  the  forehead  with  tlie  sign  of  the  cross. 
After  which  the  minister  laid  his  hands  upon  him,  and 
bestowed  tlie  benediction. 

The  baptism  (jf  children  vvas  the  common  order  of  the 
church,  although  not  univei'sal.  For  some,  as  the  Mon- 
tanists  and  Cathari,  holding  that  lieiuous  sin  after  bap- 
tism could  not  be  pardoned,  opposed  infant  baptism,  and 
even  in  the  case  of  adults,  encouraged  the  deferring  of 
it  until  late  in  life,  or  the  threatened  approacli  of  death. 

Sponsors  were  also  introduced  in  some  churches  in 
the  tiuic  of  Tertullian,  who  opposed  the  practice,  as 
another  objectionable  consequence  of  infant  baptism. 

In  the  Lord's  supper  we  read  from  Justin  Martyr, 
that  wine  mingled  with  water  was  used,  it  was  the  com- 
mon way  of  using  wine  at  table ;  but  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, superstition  recognized  a  mystery  in  that  mixture. 
The  water  represented  the  people,  the  wine,  the  blood  of 


52 

Christ,  and  tlieir  mingling,  tlie  union  of  Clirist  with  the 
multitude  (»t"  tlie  faithful. 

The  notion  of  sacrificial  efficacy  in  the  elements  had 
begun  to  prevail,  as  early  as  the  time  of  Tertullian.  And 
in  some  places  the  sacrament  was  observed  daily,  under 
the  belief  thai  the  elements  were  the  spiritual  food  of 
the  soul,  to  which  the  second  petition  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  referred,  and  which  imparted  to  the  material  frame 
of  the  believer  the  germ  of  immortality. 

In  earlier  times  the  preparation  of  catechuniens  was 
merely  tlieir  instruction  and  that  fraternal  treatment 
which  elicited  evidences  of  their  piety;  but  by  and  by, 
it  began  to  assume  the  color  of  austerities,  after  the  man- 
ner of  initiation  to  heathen  mysteries.  Then  the  re-ad- 
mission of  those  excommunicated  for  great  sins  was 
thouglit  to  require  a  discipline  still  more  severe.  The 
numerous  cases  of  the  lapsed,  about  tlie  middle  of  the  3d 
century  seemed  to  render  that  course  necessary  to  the 
purity  of  the  church.  Thus  was  the  practice  of  penance 
fully  inaugurated  before  the  death  of  Cyprian  ;  and  even 
those  who  dissented  from  it  contributed  to  define  it. 
The  Cathari  would  readmit  none  who  had  been  guilty  of 
great  sin  after  baptism  ;  they  had  therefore  to  distinguish 
between  sins  deadly  and  venial. 

In  the  large  churches  it  was  thought  expedient  to 
appoint  a  presbyter  to  examine  penitents  and  hear  from 
them  what  they  were  willing  to  confess  before  the  con- 
gregation, and  to  announce  to  each  the  penance  demanded 
of  him  by  the  existing  regulations.  Such  an  officer  was 
called  the  Presbyter  poenitentiarias. 

It  is  plain  that  there  was  during  the  first  half  of  the 
third  century  a  great  influx  of  error  and  of  mistaken 
practice;- and  yet  never  did  the  history  of  martyrdom 
present  a  nobler  roll  of  witnesses  to  the  truth.  And  in 
the  glimpse  which  we  obtain  into  the  private  character 
of  christians,  both  men  and  women,  we  behold  the  most 
beautiful  fruits  of  the  life  in  Christ,  The  leading  minds 
in  the  christian  literature  of  the  time  were  the  great 
teachers  in  the  school  at  Alexandria,  Pantaenus,  Clement, 
Origen,  Ileraclas,  and  Dionysius,  secondly,  the  African 
fathers,  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  ;  thirdly,  those  of  the 
Syrian  School,  of  whom  Julius  Africanus  was   the  most 


53 

illustrious,  nor  ought  Beryllns  of  Bostra  to  be  overlooked 
ill  the  history  of  doctrinal  development,  fourthly  those 
of  Asia  Minor,  represented  by  Firmilian  and  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus,  and  some  of  the  earliest  Monarehians, 
fifthly,  those  of  Rome  among  whom  Minutius  Felix,  Cor- 
nelius, and  Steplien  were  the  most  eminent;  Hippolytus 
was  an  illustrious  Christian  author  in  connection  with 
that  Church,  but  he  wrote  in  the  Greek  language;  and 
sixthly,  some  bishops  of  Spain  and  of  Gaul  appear  as 
leaders  of  opinion,  of  whose  writings  little  or  nothing 
remains.  By  far  the  most  valuable  writings  of  the  time 
are  those  left  by  the  great  christian  scholars  of  Alexan- 
dria and  Carthage. 

IV.— 261  TO  325  A.D. 

Groavth    of  the  Hierarchy. 

From  the  legalizing  of  Christianity  in  261  a  new  stage 
of  christian  history  began,  and  continued  until  325,  when 
Constantine,  carried  to  the  throne  of  the  empire  by 
Christian  arms,  commenced  the  reconstruction  of  the 
whole,  not  as  a  dominion  of  annexed  provinces,  but  as 
one  organic  whole,  into  which  Christianity  was  interwoven 
as  the  state  religion,  and  called  the  first  general  council 
of  the  church. 

1.  It  was  the  last  period  of  persecution  inflicted  by 
authority  of  the  Roman  government. 

2.  Secondly,  its  issue  was  the  triumph  of  Christianity 
as  the  stronger  power  in  the  etnpire. 

3.  It  was  the  period  of  diocesan  aristocracy,  during 
which  bishops,  claiming  equality  among  themselves,  held 
in  common  superiority  over  the  other  clergy,  while  some 
were  gradually  establishing  their  superiority  among 
bishops. 

4.  Fourthly,  it  was  the  period  of  controversy  with  the 
ablest  leaders  of  the  Neo-Platonic  philosopy. 

The  time  when  the  imperial  office  was  entirely  in  the 
gift  of  the  army,  and  which  began  with  the  death  of 
Commodus,  lasted  until  the  accession  of  Diocletian  in 
284.  Its  latter  years  exhibited  the  empire  almost  in  a 
state  of  anarchy.  Division  was  as  active  in  the  state,  as 
organization  in  the  church.     Gallienus  reigned  from  260 


54 

until  268;  but  so  many  were  his  rivals  that  they  have  in 
a  general  way  received  the  name  of  the  thirty  in  refer- 
ence to  the  Thirty  tyrants  in  Athens.  Gallienus  was 
himself  murdered  by  one  of  them,  who  was  defeated  in 
his  expectation  of  the  throne  by  the  fact  that  Gallienus 
had  alread}-  desio;nated  Claudius  as  his  successor,  and  by 
the  superiority  of  Claudius  on  the  battle  field.  Claudius 
died  in  270.  Ilis  successor  retained  the  honor  only  17 
days.  Aurelian  conquered  the  rebel  Kingdcnn  of  Pal- 
myra, and  all  his  military  rivals,  re-established  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  empire,  and  repelled  its  foreign  foes; 
but  at  the  end  of  five  years  of  extraordinary  activity  he 
also  fell  by  assassination,  275.  The  senate  elected  M.  C^. 
Tacitus,  a  good  man  and  able  prince,  but  of  advanced 
age,  who  sank  beneath  the  toils  of  office  in  about  seven 
months.  Florian,  and  Probus  were  set  up,  the  former 
by  the  Senate,  the  latter  by  the  army  in  Syria.  Florian 
vvas  early  put  to  death  by  his  soldiers;  Probus,  reaping 
the  fruits  of  Aurelian's  victories,  carried  his  arms  suc- 
cessfully against  invasion  from  the  north.  But  he.  also 
fell  by  the  hand  of  violence.  Cams  was  immediately,  in 
282,  set  up  by  the  soldiers.  His  reign,  though  eminently 
successful,  ended  in  about  a  3'ear.  His  successor  Nume- 
rianus  was  murdered  in  a  few  months.  And  in  28-1:, 
Diocletian  was  proclaimed  by  the  army. 

The  accession  of  Diocletian  constitutes- an  era  in  the 
history  of  both  church  and  state.  In  the  former  it  long 
continued  to  be  used  as  sucii,  under  the  name  of  Diocle- 
tian, or  of  the  martyrs.  That  illustrious  ruler  devised  a 
•  plan  to  regulate  and  control  the  imperial  succession,  and 
to  secure  efficient  government  in  every  part  of  the  empire. 

1.  First,  in  286,  he  chose  Maximian  one  of  his  generals 
as  a  colleague,  and  assigned  to  him  the  government  of 
the  west,  the  seat  of  which  was  at  Rome.  They  were  to 
be  equal  in  power,  both  to  have  the  title  Augustus,  and 
10  co-operate  in  all  affairs  of  the  whole  empire. 

2.  Soon  afterwards,  they  both  chose  assistants,  who 
were  to  be  emperors  of  a  second  rank  under  the  name 
of  Caesar.  Diocletian  chose  Maximin  Galerius,  to  whom 
was  assigned  Thrace  and  Illyricum ;  all  the  rest  of  the 
East  being  under  his  own  immediate  rule.  Maximian 
chose  Constantius  Chlorus,  and  gave  him  authority  over 


55 

Spain,  Gaul  and  Britain,  retaining  the  other  parts  of  the 
West  for  himself. 

3.  The  Cffisars  were  to  be  as  it  were  lieutenants  of  the 
Aiigosti,  anci  when  an  Angnstns  died  or  resigned,  his 
Ctesar  was  to  take  his  place,  and  select  another  Csesar. 
Thus  it  was  hoped  the  empire  would  always  have  rulers 
present  in  all  its  four  great  quarters,  always  have  men, 
in  its  two  highest  places,  in  the  ripeness  of  experience, 
wise  heads  to  guide  or  at  least  to  counsel  with  the 
younger  emperors  while  acquiring  their  experience,  and 
there  would  be  a  regular  lawful  and  reliable  order  of 
succession. 

4.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  part  of  the  plan  that, 
unless  death  should  work  the  change  sooner,  the  Augusti 
after  the  lapse  of  a  certain  time,  or  the  attainment  of  a 
certain  age,  should  abdicate  and  leave  the  supreme 
authority  to  their  CiBsars. 

It  was  a  beautiful  scheme,  but  presumed  npon  dis- 
interested virtue  in  ambitious  men, — a  fatal  presump- 
tion ;  and  yet  it  secured  twenty  years  of  orderly  govern- 
ment, and  perhaps  suggested  to  him  who  overthrew  it 
the  conception  of  one  which  proved  more  durable. 

It  was  no  whim,  nor  mere  weakness  which  at  the  end 
of  twenty-one  years,  led  Dioletian,  in  305,  to  abdicate 
and  go  into  retirement.  His  colleague  Augustus,  Max- 
imian,  also  complied  with  the  rule.  Their  Csesars, 
accordingly  became  Augusti,  and  new  Csesars  were 
appointed. 

Galerius  was  now  Augustus  of  the  East,  and  Con- 
stantius  of  the  West,  while  the  Caesar  of  the  East  was 
Maximin  Daza,  and  in  the  West,  Severus. 

Constantius  died  at  York  in  306.  Thereupon  the 
soldiers  arrogated  to  themselves  the  power  so  long  kept 
out  of  their  hands.  The  army  of  Britain  insisted  upon 
making  Constantine,  the  son  of  Constantius,  Augustus. 
And  the  young  prince  accepted  their  nomination  with- 
out regard  to  Diocletian's  scheme.  Other  pretenders 
arose  elsewhere.  Galerius  maintained  the  scheme  in  the 
East,  and  Maximian  returned  to  defend  it  in  the  West. 
But  the  case  was  decided  by  the  sword.  Severus  was 
defeated  and  slain,  and  Constantine  marched  in  victory 
from  Britain  to  Rome,     In  the  neighborhood  of  the  city 


56 

he  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  Saxa  Rubra  in  312.  It 
was  in  that  campaign  that  he  saw,  as  he  thought,  the 
luminous  cross  in  the  heavens. 

Galerius  died  in  311,  and  Maximin  Daza  succeeded 
to  the  jdace  of  Augustus  of  the  east,  with  Licinius  as 
Csesar,  Constantine  being  sole  emperor  of  the  west. 

From  the  time  of  Gallienus,  Christians  had  been  free 
from  persecution  by  governmental  order,  until  the  nine- 
teenth year  of  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  when  persuaded, 
it  is  said  by  the  urgency  of  his  Csesar,  the  senior  emperor 
gave  his  sanction  to  a  new  attempt  to  suppress  their  wor- 
ship. He  soon  after  abdicated,  but  the  persecution  was 
continued  by  his  successor,  who  as  Caesar  had  instigated 
it.  Just  before  his  death  in  311,  Galerius  revoked  tlie 
edict  of  persecution.  After  Ids  death  it  was  again  put 
in  force;  but  could  now  take  effect  otdy  in  the  east.  In 
the  west,  from  its  beginning  under  Maximian,  it  was 
light,  and  lasted  not  quite  two  years. 

No  sooner  had  Constantine  secured  himself  in  com- 
mand of  the  west  than  he  issued,  in  conjunction  with 
Licinius,  the  Csesar  of  the  east,  whose  jurisdiction 
covered  the  European  east,  an  edict  proclaiming  freedom 
to  all  cliristians  within  their  dominions.  It  was  published 
at  Milan  in  313. 

During  the  absence  of  Constantine  in  war  with  the 
Franks,  Maximin,  Augustus  of  the  east,  from  hatred  to 
Christianity  made  war  upon  Licinius.  The  issue  of  that 
conflict  was  his  own  defeat,  followed  by  his  death  in  the 
same  year,  313. 

'  Licinius  now  as  master  of  all  the  eastern  empire 
assumed  the  attitude  of  competitor  with  Constantino  for 
the  dominion  of  the  whole.  He  was  worsteil  in  the  war 
waged  in  that  cause,  in  314,  and  constrained  to  cede  the 
European  east  to  Constantine. 

Eight  yeai-s  later,  Licinius,  having  deserted  the  cause 
of  the  Christians,  concluded  to  try  the  fortune  of  war  at 
the  head  of  the  heathen  interest.  The  war  which  ensued 
was  clearly  a  trial  of  military  strength  between  the 
Heathen  and  Christian  parties  in  the  empire.  The  two 
armies  met  near  Adrianople,  324.  Constantine  displayed 
the  banner  of  the  cross,  Licinius  raised  the  old  idolatrous 
standards  of  Rome.     The  issue  of  that  hard  fought  bat- 


57 

tie,  one  of  the  most  inomentoiis  in  the  world's  history, 
was  the  overthrow  of  Licinius,  and  of  the  cause  which 
he  had  adopted.  iVnother,  but  a  feeble  attempt  com- 
pleted his  ruin.  To  Heathenism  the  defeat  was  final. 
The  empire  came  under  the  rule  of  the  Christian  leader. 
An  edict  of  genera!  toleration  was  issued.  The  next 
step  was  to  recognize  the  churches  as  in  their  organiza- 
tion holding  relations  to  the  new  constitution  of  the  civil 
government. 

Ecclesiastical  tradition,  reckoning  from  the  first  under 
jS'ero,  counts  ten  heathen  persecutions,  namely  under 
Nero,  Domitian,  Trajan,  Miircus  Aurelius,  Septirnius 
Severus,  Maxiniin,  Decius,  Valerian,  Aurelian,  and  Dio- 
cletian. But  that  number  is  arbitrary.  With  equal  jus- 
tice they  may  be  said  to  be  more  or  fewer,  according  as 
attention  is  confined  to  general  persecutions,  or  extended 
to  comprehend  the  local ;  to  those  which  were  ordered 
by  an  emperor,  or  including  those  which  he  failed  to 
repress.  Imperial  general  persecutions  were  few;  local 
persecutions  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  one  quarter 
or  another. 

Episcopal  equality,  defended  by  Cyprian  in  the  mid- 
die  of  the  third  century,  was  suft'ering  infringement  even 
then  ;  in  the  succeeding  generation  a  new  and  higher 
rank  among  bishops,  boldly  claimed  and  received  gene- 
ral recognition.  Under  the  method  of  church  extension 
then  pursued,  it  was  not  easy  to  withhold  an  unequal 
weight  of  influence  from  the  bishops  of  the  large  cities. 
At  first  the  most  impoytant  cities  were  Jerusalem,  Anti- 
och,  Ephesus,  Corinth,  and  Rome.  In  course  of  time 
Jerusalem  was  overthrown,  Corinth  and  Ephesus  became 
relatively  of  less  importance,  wdiile  Alexandria  and  Car- 
thage rose  each  to  a  proper  distinction  of  its  own.  Dur- 
ing the  third  century  the  largest  and  most  influential 
churches  were  those  of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Rome  and 
Carthage.  Several  causes  co-operated  to  confer  a  predomi- 
nant influence  upon  the  churches  in  those  chief  cities; 
the  number  of  their  congregations,  the  extent  of  their 
suburban  missions,  the  talent  developed  by  the  great 
demands  upon  their  bishops,  and  their  place  in  relation 
to  the  imperial  government,  and  commerce  of  the  empire. 


58 

A  great  nnniber  of  cities  not  so  important  as  these,  were 
yet  large  enongii  to  work  similar  eflects  in  the  history  of 
the  (;hnrch. 

From  the  municipal  principle  of  one  church  for  one 
city  and  only  one  bishop  for  one  church  proceeded  seve- 
ral effects  at  variance  with  ministerial  parity.  First, one 
bishop  as  the  presiding  officer  (n^er  several  pastors  of  city 
congregations,  who  could  be  only  i)resbyters.  Secondly, 
a  mission  from  a  great  city  church  to  a  neighboring  town 
was  at  first  a  niere  branch  of  the  city  church  ;  but  when 
it  increased  to  more  than  one  congregation,  its  pastor 
became  to  its  congregations  what  the  bishop  of  the  city 
was  to  th(>  cit)'  congregations;  but  that  he  should  be  still 
esteemed  a  dependant  and  inferior  of  the  latter  could  not 
be  avoided  ;  and  recognized  as  bishop,  he  was  a  bishop 
of  humbler  raids:.  Thirdl}-,  there  was  strength  and  sup- 
})ort  expected  by  the  churches  in  the  smaller  towns  from 
such  connection  with  the  larger:  and  in  course  of  time 
many  small  country  churches  and  bishops,  at  first  inde- 
pendent, applied  for,  and  were  accei)ted  into  such  filial 
relations  to  some  great  city  church. 

Thus,  before  the  end  of  the  third  century,  the  juris- 
diction of  some  of  the  great  city  bishops  extended  verj- 
fai-.  That  of  Rome  included  not  oidy  her  proper  mis- 
sions, but  the  greater  part  of  central,  and  all  the  south 
of  Italy,  and  perhaps  the  adjoining  islands  Sicily,  Sardi- 
nia, and  Corsica.  Carthage  had  also  become  head  of  the 
churches  in  ISTorth  Africa;  Alexandria  of  most  of  those 
in  Egypt,  and  Antioch,  now  the  oldest  of  the  large 
, churches  held  a  similar  position  in  Syria  and  the  further 
east. 

Consequently,  a  new  rank  was  established  among 
n)inisters,  in  those  bishops  over  bishops  in  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  metropolitan  cities.  Still  it  was  a  system  not 
formally  and  legally  established  during  the  third  century. 
The  superior  bishops  we.re  styled  simply  bishops  of 
the  first  seat,  Priniae  sedis  episcopi,  or  Primi,  or  Primates. 
Such  a  one  was  considered  as  having  the  right  to  con- 
voke a  council  of  the  bishops  of  his  province,  and  to 
preside  in  it ;  and,  in  the  interval,  the  right  of  judicature 
in  matters  affecting  any  bishop  of  the  province. 


59 

Obviously,  in  those  days,  provincial  councils  tended 
to  consolidate  the  metropolitan  system  in  all  its  parts. 

A  marked  distinction  was  now  made  between  the 
clergy  {clerus)  and  the  laity,  {laid),  the  former  being 
viewed  as  a  sort  of  spiritual  aristocracy.  They  were 
sometimes  spoken  of  in  terms  of  the  Mosaic  economy,  as 
Priests  and  Levites.  Ministers  of  the  gospel  were,  at  the 
great  centres  of  })opnlation,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century,  losing  sight  of  their  simple  evangelical 
vocation,  and  taking  upon  them  the  features  of  a  sacer- 
dotal order.  A  prolession  of  sanctity  was  demanded  of 
them  above  otlier  men  ;  and  many  things  which  wei'e 
not  sinful  in  other  men  were  held  to  be  sinful  in  them. 

Among  the  opponents,  wliom  Christianity  had  to 
encounter  in  argument,  the  ablest  were  still  the  l^eo- 
Platonist  philosophers,  of  whom  by  far  the  most  learned 
and  gifted  were  Plotinus  and  Porphyry,  especially  the 
former,  to  whom  the  so-called  ]^eo-Platonist  philosophy 
was  indebted  for  its  utmost  completeness.  His  own 
work  was  done  chiefly-  in  the  former  period;  but  his 
inlluenceagainstchristianity  was  stronger  after  his  death, 
through  some  of  his  pupils,  Plotinusl  ectured  in  various 
places,  from  Persia  to  Rome,  and  wrote  many  books, 
which  were  highly  esteemed,  and  some  of  which  still 
survive.  He  died  in  or  about  the  year  270.  The  Neo- 
Platonic  sect  had  already  spread  over  most  of  the  civil- 
ized world;  and  its  style  of  thinking  as  molded  by 'Plo- 
tinus was  that  which  opposed  itself  with  most  eifect  to 
the  christian    apologist,  through   the  rest  of  the  period. 

Porphyry  of  Tyre,  a  pupil  of  Plotinus,  flourished 
between  260  and  305.  His  argument  against  Christianity 
was  a  large  work,  extending  to  fifteen  books.  It  is  no 
longer  extant  as  a  whole;  but  portions  of  it  remain  as 
quoted  in  the  writings  of  christians  who  encountered 
its  attacks. 

Of  Hierocles,  an  eclectic  philosopher,  we  learn  chiefly 
from  the  notice  taken  of  his  book  against  Christianity  by 
Lactantius,  and  the  reply  to  it  by  Eusebius.  It  was  com- 
posed during  the  final  persecution,  and  called  "  Words 
of  a  truth-lover  to  the  christians."  Hierocles  not  only 
wrote   against  Christianity,  but   also  bears  the  blame  of 


60 

having  instigated  that  persecntion  which  has  branded 
the  name  of  Diocletian.  He  was  governor  of  Bithvnia 
under  thai  emperor. 

lamhliehus  of  Chaleis,  in  Coelo  Syria,  wrote  a  work 
on  the  life  <\ud  philosophy  of  Pythagoras,  in  which  he 
introduced  arguments  designed  to  resist  the  progress  of 
Christianity.  lamhliehus  enjoyed  the  highest  philosophi- 
cal rei)utation  in  his  time,  which  was  the  first  thirty  years 
of  the  fourth  century. 

In  the  field  of  theological  discussion  the  Alexandrian 
school  still  exerted  the  widest  influence.  Theological 
writers  were  divided  for  and  against  the  doctrines  of 
Origen,  and  later  in  the  period,  witfi  more  intensity, 
res[)ecting  those  of  Arius.  Latin  writers  were  inferior, 
as  compared  with  the  Greek,  in  analytical  power,  and 
subtlety  of  discrimination.  Their  theology  was  more 
practical,  but  ruder  in  its  structure.  Lack  of  specula- 
tion gave  greater  stability  to  their  doctrines  and  style, 
and  their  thoughts  turned  more  upon  points  of  discipline 
and  government.  It  was  from  Greece  that  Roman  phi- 
losophy was  derived,  and  from  Greeks  came  also  the  first 
part  of  systematic  theolog3^ 

The  principal  christian  authors  in  Latin  were  Com- 
modianus  and  Arnobius,  both  of  North  Africa,  and  Lac- 
tantius  who  studied  with  Arnobius.  Commodianus,  the 
earliest  christian  poet  in  Latin,  was  author  of  a  poem  on 
the  evidences  of  ci)ristianity,  written  about  270.  Arno- 
bius, about  305  published  an  apologetic  work  called  a 
"Disputation  against  the  Gentiles."  The  wnntings  of 
Lactantius  are  of  much  more  importance,  and  in  more 
elegant  Latin  than  any  of  his  predecessors  had  been  able 
to  command.  They  are  chiefly  controversial,  in  defence 
of  christian  doctrine,  against  heathenism  and  heathen 
philosophy.     Lactantius  died  between  325  and  350. 

Among  errorists  Paul  of  Samosato,  bishop  of  Antioch, 
was  charged  with  preaching,  a  variety  of  monarchianism, 
similar  to  that  of  Sabellius.  and  with  conduct  otherwise 
unbecoming  a  minister  of  the  gospel.  In  a  council  at 
Antioch  268  he  was  tried  and  deposed,  but  protected  by 
Zenobia  Queen  of  Palmyra,  he  continued  in  office. 
When  Aurelian  had  defeated  Zenobia  272,  he  constrained 


61 

Paul  to  give  place  to  the  bishop  appointed  by  the  council. 

In  Egypt,  a  schism  took  phuje  during  the  Diocletian 
persecution.  Meletius,  bishop  of  Lycopolis  in  the  The- 
baic!, for  some  cause  which  i?  not  satisfactorily  explained, 
broke  off  his  connection  with  the  bishop  of  Alexandria. 
Several  other  Egyptian  bishops  joined  him*,  and  resisted 
all  attempts  to  bring  them  back  to  allegiance  to  Alexan- 
dria. It  was  one  of  several  cases  of  resistance  on  the 
part  of  parochial  bishops  to  the  aggressions  of  the  metro- 
politans. 

In  the  Diocletian  persecution,  it  v/as  exacted  of  christ- 
ians to  surrender  their  copies  of  the  Scriptures  to  be 
destroyed.  Those  wdio  submitted  were  counted  among 
the  lapsed,  as  Traditores. 

The  most  remarkable  heresy  of  the  last  half  of  the 
third  century  came  from  the  side  of  Persia,  and  consisted 
in  a  combination  of  some  elements  of  Christianity  with 
some  of  later  Avestanism  and  of  Buddhism.  Its  author 
was  Mani,  Manes,  or  Manichaeus,  a  Persian,  who 
appeared  as  a  religious  teacher  aliout  270. 

1.  Mani  taught  the  doctrine  of  two  spiritual  king- 
doms of  good  a!id  of  evil,  and  also  of  one  supreme  power 
comprehending  both.  Good  was  identified  with  light, 
evil  with  darkness. 

2.  The  kingdom  of  light  was  internally  harmonious; 
that  of  darkness,  in  perpetual  disorder,  and  internal 
war. 

3.  The  evil  spirits  assaulted  the  kingdom  of  light. 
The  One  Supreme  God  brought  man  into  existence  and 
bound  him  in  matter  that  he  might  resist  the  forces  of 
evil. 

4.  Man  was  originally  joined  to  the  five  pure  ele- 
ments of  nature, — fire,  light,  air,  earth  and  water.  But 
in  the  war  with  the  demons  and  the  impure  elements,  he 
was  worsted,  and  held  in  fetters  of  matter. 

5.  The  Almighty  sent  the  living  spirit,  an  emanation 
from  himself,  who  raised  man  once  more  to  the  kingdom 
of  light. 

6.  Meanwhile  the  powers  of  evil  had  succeeded  in 
retaining  a  part  of  man's  light-essence  involved  in  mat- 


62 

ter,  an    element  whicli    has   to  go  through   a  process  of 
purification  and  development  towards  liberation. 

7.  To  that  end,tlie  spirits  of  light  still  bound  up  with 
matter  are  through  the  process  of  generation  into  human 
nature,  rendered  conscious  and  intelligent,  and  by  the 
means  of  religious  purification,  eliminated  from  matter 
in  man,  and  restored  to  the  realm  of  pure  spirit,  in  tlje 
kingdom  of  light. 

8.  This  process  is  now  going  on.  Meanwhile,  the 
liberated  souls  are  placed  in  the  sun  and  moon,  from 
which  they  exert  an  influence  to  draw  upwards  to  them- 
selves the  spirits  still  connected  with  matter,  bj'  the  pro- 
cess of  evolution  in  \egetable  and  animal  life. 

9.  Matter,  after  being  exsiccated  of  all  the  elements  of, 
light  and  pure  life,  was  to  be  reduced  by  fire  to  an  inert 
mass.     And  souls  who  still  submitted  themselves  to  sin 
were  to  be  banished  forever  to  its  inhospitable  desolation. 

10.  Mani  was  regarded  by  his  followers  as  the  incar- 
nation of  the  Paraclete.  All  his  writings  were,  in  their 
estimation,  holy  scripture.  Only  such  parts  of  the  New 
Testament  as  suited  their  views  were  accepted  by  him 
and  his  followers.  They  had  also  their  exoteric  and 
esoteric  instructions,  for  two  difterent  classes  of  their  peo- 
ple, their  Auditors  and  their  Saints,  or  Ulect. 

The  Elect  constituted  their  sacerdotal  class,  in  the 
highest  stage  of  purification.  The  Auditors  were  their 
common  members,  who  were  taught  that  their  imperfect 
righteousness  could  be  raised  to  completeness  by  obtain- 
ing an  interest  in  the  superabundant  righteousness  of 
the  Elect. 

From  the  Elect  were  chosen  the  presi:ling  officers  of 
the  Manichsean  church,  the  orders  of  which  were  first, 
Mani,  (the  embodied  Paraclete)/after  his  death  represented 
by  a  sacerdotal  chief ;  second,  twelve  7nagistri ;  and  third, 
the  seventy-two  bishops  of  the  Manichasan  churches. 

After  their  founder's  ileath,  this  sect  found  many 
adherents,  especially  in  the  East  and  in  North  Africa, 
although  they  suffered  much  persecution  from  both  Per- 
sian and  Roman  authorities.  Mani  was  himself  put  to 
death  by  order  of  King  Baharam  I.,  of  Persia,  some 
time  between  272  and  2"77. 


63 

The  principal  theological  question  of  the  time  still 
related  to  the  Person  of  Christ;  but  now  chiefly  as  a 
person  in  the  Godhead,  thereby  involving  discussion  of 
the  whole  subject  of  the  divine  Trinity  ;  and  that  now 
more  closely  determined  by  the  bearings  of  the  Alexan- 
drian theology. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  a  large 
amount  of  property  had  come  into  the  hands  of  christ- 
ians; and  in  some  places  their  church  edifices  were  of 
great  elegance.  No  pictures  or  religious  symbols  were 
allowed  in  them,  although  such  were  used  on  tombs,  and 
on  household  utensils.  In  the  catacombs  are  found  the 
monogram  of  the  nam'.'  of  Christ,  the  dove,  the  fish,  the 
cross,  and  other  christian  symbols.  And  in  christian 
*  worship  and  observances  certain  symbolical  numbers 
were  of  frequent  occurrence. 


THIRD  PERIOD— 325  TO  1517  A.  D. 

With  the  accession  of  Constantine  to  the  undivided 
throne  begins  the  third  of  the  grand  periods  into  which 
the  historj'  of  the  christian  church  divides  itself.  It 
covers  the  time  in  which  the  church,  first  united  with  the 
Roman  empire  as  the  state  religion,  in  course  of  pro- 
gress, took  to  itself  the  features  of  Roman  government, 
and  when  the  "Western  empire  fell,  assumed  its  place  of 
superiority  among  the  nations;  and  when  the  Gospel 
was  bound  in  fetters  of  human  law. 

Within  that  long  period,  extending  to  the  early  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  various  changes  took  place, 
marking  several  subordinate  steps  of  progress  or  decline. 

I.      325—395. 

First  Union  op  Church  and  State. 

First  of  those  sections  is  that  of  the  rapid  decline  of 
Heathenism,  in  the  end  of  which  its  principal  rites  were 
suppressed  by  law.  When  Christianity  became  the  rul- 
ing religion  Heathenism  had  no  fortitude  to  withstand 


64 

the  disfavor   of  government ;  and  when   its   ceremonies 
were   made   unlawful   it   riii)iilly  dwindled   away,      Tlie 
emperors    henceforth    become   the   extei'iial  defenders  of 
the  church. 

With  Constantine's  victory  at  Adrianople,  the  last 
vestige  of  Diocletian's  plan  of  government  disappeared; 
a  wiser,  and  a  more  effective  one  was  constructed  by  the 
new  emperor.  While  the  sovereign  was  to  be  one,  the 
division  of  territory  was  retained,  under  tlie  names  of 
the  Prefectures  of  Gaul,  of  Italy,  of  Illyricum,  and  of 
the  East,  over  which  were  appointed  officers  called  Pre- 
fects. The  Prefectures  were  divided  into  Dioceses,  which 
were  governed  bj'  Vicars,  and  the  Dioceses,  into 
Provinces,  under  the  administration  of  Rectors,  or  Pre- 
sides ;  and  each  Province  was  divided  into  smaller  dis- 
tricts with  a  corresponding  distribution  of  civil  officers. 
A  similar  disposal  was  made  of  the  army,  under  its  ov>?-n 
proper  commanders.  And  honors  and  titles  of  honor 
were  graduated  in  like  manner,  from  the  Emperor  down 
to  the  humblest  who  had  any  claim  to  distinction.  The 
reins  of  these  ramitied  authorities  were  to  be  gathered 
together  in  the  hands  of  one  monarch  whose  office  was 
to  be  hereditary. 

In  this  system  Christianity  took  its  place,  and  adapted 
its  government  to  the  arrangements  for  the  state.  Dur- 
ing the  preceding  fifty  or  sixty  years,  the  order  of  the 
church  had  been  growing  into  such  a  shape  that  no  act 
of  violence  was  needed  to  effect  conformity.  Yet  it  took 
some  time  to  complete  the  correspondence,  on  the  part  of 
♦  the  church,  and  as  respects  the  distribution  of  her  higher 
jurisdictions,  it  was  never  precisely  fitted,  though  every 
where  approximate  to  the  civil.  A  general  council  at 
Constantinople,  in  381,  established  the  superiority  of  the 
bishops  of  a  diocese  over  the  bishops  of  the  Provinces 
within  the  Diocese,  and  of  the  Diocesan  synods  over  the 
Provincial  synods ;  and  both  were  regularly  appointed 
church  courts,  and  met  at  the  call  of  their  respective 
superior  bishops. 

The  head  of  that  church  system  of  government  was 
the  emperor,  who  alone  convoked  general  councils,  and 
presided  in  them,  personally,  or  by  his  commissioner, 


65 

and  iiave  the  force  of  law  to  tlieir  acts.  The  tirst  eccle- 
siastical council  called  by  an  emperor  was  the  synod  of 
Aries  in  314.  And  the  lirst  general  council  of  the  churcli 
met  at  Nice  in  Bithynia,  in  325,  at  the  command,  and 
under  the  presidency  of  Constantine. 

The  order  of  ranks,  in  the  ministry  recognized  under 
the  new  constitution  were  those  of  Exarchs,  otherwise, 
Archbishops,  ruling  each  a  Diocese  of  the  empire  ; 
second,  Metro})olitans,  also  sometimes  called  Archbish- 
ops, ruling  each  over  a  province;  thirdly,  Bisliops  ruling 
over  smaller  sees  consisting  of  various  congregations, 
ministered  to  by  Presbyters ;  and  fourth  the  Presbyter 
pastors  of  congregations ;  and  within  the  congregation 
its  Deacons  and  other  Parochial  officers. 

Presbyters  and  the  lower  clergy,  according  to  this 
system,  were  no  longer  to  be  chosen  by  the  people  of  their 
respective  churches,  but  appointed  by  the  bishop.  The 
election  of  a  bishop  depended  mostly  on  the  other  bishops 
of  the  province.  Still  the  consent  of  the  people  was 
required  ;  and  especially  in  the  West,  was  often  decisive, 
if  not  imperative. 

Constantine  died  in  337,  having  received  christian 
baptism  only  a  few  days  before.  He  was  baptized  between 
Easter  and  Pentecost,  and  died  on  the  latter.  His  sons 
Constantine,  Constantius,  and  Constans,  divided  the 
empire  among  them ;  but  in  the  course  of  successive  civil 
wars,  it  came  in  350  into  the  hands  of  Constantius  alone. 
In  361  Julian,  a  nephew  of  Constantine  L,  came  to  the 
throne.  An  admirer  of  heathen  literature  and  philoso- 
phy Julian  attempted  to  re-establish  polytheism,  and  the 
old  heathen  worship.  But  his  reign  was  too  brief  to 
effect  his  designs.  He  fell  in  battle  with  the  Persians  in 
263.  Jovian  who  succeeded  him  was  a  zealous  christian  ; 
in  his  brief  reign  of  seven  months,  he  repealed  all  the 
laws  of  Julian  adverse  to  christianit}-.  After  his  death, 
the  empire  was  again  divided  into  Eastern  and  Western, 
with  much  irregularity  for  about  fifteen  years.  In  379, 
Theodosius  became  emperor  of  the  East.  In  the  West 
disorder  continued  thirteen  years  longer,  until  392,  when 
Theodosius  united  the  whole  empire  under  his  own 
hand,  and  held  it  until  his  death  in  395.  By  his  legisla- 
tion  all    kinds   of  idolatry  were   forbidden  under  severe 


66 

pnnisliments.  The  emperor  Constuntius  had  prohibited 
sacritice;  but  this  law  couhl  not  be  carried  into  effect  at 
the  centres  of  concourse,  Home  and  Alexandria.  After 
Theodosius  interdicted  the  payment  of  their  expenses 
from  the  public  treasury  sacrifices  were  no  longer 
observed. 

It  is  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  that  we 
first  come  in  sight  of  monasticism,  as  a  recognized  style 
of  religious  life  within  the  christian  cliurch.  I*s"ot  that 
the  church  ever  originated  a  monastic  order,  but  that  the 
body  of  christian  people  esteemed  that  way  of  life  as  one 
of  eminent  sanctity.  Its  institutions  organized  by  other 
means  came  to  the  cliurch  for  sanction,  and  generally 
received  it;  allhough,  from  the  first  tliey  were  more  in 
the  spirit  of  Buddhism  than  of  cliristianity.  Monasticism 
is  an  essential  institution  of  Buddhism,  but  not  of  the 
Gospel  of  Christ.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, Buddhism  was  in  its  prime,  and  pouring  its  influen- 
ces in  upon  the  population  of  the  eastern  empire  in 
various  ways. 

Asceticism  had  been  practiced,  to  some  extent,  as 
early  as  the  second  century  ;  but  then,  and  during  the 
first  half  of  the  third,  ascetics  had  lived  among  other 
christians,  without  external  distinction.  During  the 
Decian  persecution,  some  christians  of  Egypt  fled  to  the 
desert,  and  there  gave  themselves  up  to  austerities. 
They  were  called  ifr/^fuza:,  Eremites,  or  tj.ova-)[ol,  monks. 
Public  attention  was  turned  to  the  subject  "in  311,  by  the 
appearance  of  the  hermit  Antony  in  a  procession  in 
Alexandria.  He  had  begun  to  preach  his  doctrines  as 
early  as  305,  and  found  many  to  admire  and  imitate  him. 
After  a  number  of  hermits  had  been  brought  together, 
a  place  of  habitation  was  founded  for  them  by  Pacho- 
mius,  where  they  could  dwell  together,  on  the  island 
Tabenna  in  the  Nile.  Soon  afterwards  similar  societies 
were  formed  in  the  deserts  of  Sketis  and  of  Nitria  in 
Egypt,  in  the  desert  near  Gaza,  and  elsewhere  in  Pales- 
tine and  Syria.  Thence  the  example  extended  to  Arme- 
nia and  Asia  Minoi',  chiefly  in  desert  plae.es;  but  ere  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century,  sometimes  also  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  cities.  Some  ascetics  lived  solitary  ;  others 
in   associations   according  to  some  common  rule.     Such 


67 

an  association  was  called  xocuoj^mu^ov  fj.di^df>a,\n  Greek,  and 
Claustrum  in  Latin;  a  member  oi  \i  wd^,  -/.otvofiiTr^:;,  uv 
I'uuodczr^^,  and  the  president,  'J^y9'2c,  or  'Af)')(:fjiavdpky^^. 
Monacliism,  as  a  system,  came  into  the  t-liurch,  did  not 
grow  out  of  it.  Laymen,  not  ministers,  were  the  first 
monks.  It  was  introduced  by  individuals,  not  b}"  church 
order.  But  to  christians  of  the  fourth  century  the  prac- 
tice seemed  eminently  holy,  and  monks  held  in  such 
esteem,  that  ere  tlie  end  of  the  century  clergy  of  the 
highest  rank  belonged  to  their  number. 

Questions  relating  to  church  order  and  doctrine  were 
chiefly  the  schism  of  the  Donatists  and  the  heresy  of 
Arius. 

The  fanaticism  of  seeking  persecution  was  reproved 
and  resisted  by  Ca?cilianus  who  was  elected  bishop  of 
Carthage  in  311.  A  strong  party  opposed  him,  and  set 
up  Majorinus  and  afterwards  Donatus  as  their  bishops. 
The  controversy  continued  long.  Li  313  the  case  was 
submitted  to  the  Emperor  Constantine,  who  appointed 
three  Gallic  bishops  with  the  bishop  of  Rome  to  investi- 
gate the  matter.  The  decision  was  unfavorable  to  the 
Donatists,  who  expressed  their  dissatisfaction.  The 
emperor  then  in  314,  called  a  council  to  meet  at  Aries, 
whose  decision  was  also  adverse  to  them,  jNotwithitand- 
ing,  the  party  maintained  its  existence  in  Africa  until 
that  province  was  overrun  by  the  Vandals. 

The  Meletian  schism  also  continued  in  Egypt,  and 
several  persons  in  different  quarters  protested  against  the 
growing  prelatical  aristocracy.  Such  were  Aerius, 
Jovinian,  and  Vigilantius.  But  the  great  body  of  the 
church  was  well  pleased  with  the  new  relations  to  the 
state,  and  with  the  hierarchical  order,  by  which  it  seemed 
80  well  balanced  with  the  civil  authorities. 

The  most  momentous  doctrinal  controversy  was  that 
concerning  Arius.  Origen  had  taught  tliat  the  Divine 
Logos  },)roceeds  from  the  will  of  God  the  Father  con- 
tinually and  from  all  eternity,  that  he  is  inferior  to  God 
and  different  as  to  substance.  Dionysins  at  one  time 
taught  that  the  relation  between  Christ  and  God  was  that 
of  eternal  creation.  He  afterwards  saw  his  error  and 
withdrew  from  it.  But  Arius,  a  pupil  of  the  Syrian 
school,  and  a  Presbyter  in  Alexandria,  boldly  accepted 


f)8 

the  (loctriiie  of  creation,  but  not  us  eteri)al;  teaching  also 
that  the  Divine  Logos  was  t]ie  only  created  of  the  Father, 
that  all  other  things  were  created  by  him,  that  he  is  per- 
fect, and  as  like  God  as  a  created  being  can  be. 

This  view  was  condemned  by  Alexander,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  in  818;  but  many  bishops  in  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  it.  The  contro- 
versy soon  extended  to  the  whole  East.  Attempts  w^ere 
made  by  the  emperor  to  bring  it  to  an  end,  through  means 
of  friendly  correspondence  with  leading  men,  but  with- 
out effect.  Finally  he  called  a  council  of  the  whole 
church  to  meet  at  Nice  in  Bithynia  in  3:^5  for  the  purpose 
of  settling  the  dispute.  The  cause  of  the  bishop  of 
Alexandria  was  pled  by  Athanasius,  then  a  deacon  of 
that  church,  and  by  otliers.  Arius  was  defended  by  a 
strong  party,  but  was  condemned  as  guilty  of  heresy. 
And  the  faith  of  the  church  was  defined  to  be  that  the 
Divine  Logos  is  uncreated.  The  council  also  drew  up  a 
brief  confession  of  orthodox  faith.  Li  that  symbol  called 
the  Nicene  Creed  were  summed  up  the  results  of  theo- 
logical discussion  so  far  as  then  settled. 

The  council  also  undertook  to  terminate  the  schism 
of  Meletius,  and  the  difference  between  the  practice  of 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churclies  in  the  observation  of 
Easter,  by  giving  judgment  in  the  former  case  against 
Meletius  and  deciding  the  latter  in  favor  of  the  West. 

Touching  the  number  of  bishops  assembled  at  Xice 
statements  differ.  It  is  commonly  given  as  318.  Most 
of  the  Arian  members  subriiitted  to  the  doctrinal  decis- 
»  ions,  though  with  reluctance,  oti  some  points,  especially 
on  the  consubstantiality  of  the  Father  and  Son  in  Deity. 
A  minority  preferred  to  say  that  the  Son  was  of  nature 
similar  to  the  Father.  Instead  of  biioo'jmo^  rw  Tzarpi  they 
defended  the  doctrine  of  bfioeooatoc  tw  Ttarfn,  and  on  that 
Semi-Arian  ground  took  their  stand  in  opposition  to  the 
council,  and  obtained  many  adherents,  chiefly  in  the 
East.  In  the  course  of  ten  years  they  were  strong  enough 
to  depose  Athanasius  from  the  bishopric;  of  Alexandria, 
to  which  he  had  been  elevated,  after  the  council.  He 
found  refuge  in  the  West. 

On  this  question  a  council  was  called  in  347  to  meet 
at  Sardica;  but  it  divided  into  two  councils,  and  accom- 


69 

plished  nothino;.  After  lotii^;  continued  controversy,  the 
enipei'or  Theodosins  culled  a  o:eneral  council  to  meet  at 
Constantinople  in  381.  One  hundred  and  tifty  bishops 
assembled.  There  the  Nicene  creed  was  revised ;  its 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  C(>nfirnied,  and  articles  added 
touching  heresies  which  had  arisen  since  it  was  framed. 
In  this  latter  form  the  creed  became  the  universally 
recogMiized  syml)ol  of  orthodoxy.  Pure  Arianism  sub- 
sequently declined  within  the  empire,  but  maintained 
itself  among  the  Germanic  nations.  Semi- Arianism  pre- 
vailed among  the  Eastern  churches;  while  the  Nicene 
doctrines  wei-e  accepted  in  the  Western  empire.  Antioch, 
as  the  head  of  the  Syrian  school,  became  deeply  leavened 
with  Semi-Arianism,  Alexandria  continued  long  to  be  the 
chief  school  of  orthodoxy.  Theologians  took  their  stand 
with  one  or  the  other. 

Theodosius  w^as  the  last  who  held  the  reins  of  the 
united  empire.  Upon  his  death  in  395,  it  was  divided 
between  his  two  sons,  Arcadius  taking  tlie  East,  and 
Honorius  the  West.  In  the  same  year  tlie  Huns  upon 
the  North  broke  into  trie  provinces  of  Panonia  and 
Moesia,  and  the  Goths  took  up  arms  for  invasion  of 
Tlirace,  Macedonia  and  Greece,  which  the}'  effected  next 
year.  Ere  that  time  the  chui'ch  government,  under  the 
constitution  devised  by  Constantine,  had  become  solidified 
into  an  organic  self-sustaining  structure  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  a  new  and  vigorous  life,  to  which  the  civil  gov- 
ernment had  nothing  to  correspond.  The  latter  began 
to  break  apart  into  irreparable  decay;  the  former  to 
increase  towards  completeness  of  organization. 

11.     395—451. 
Doctrinal  Definition. 

Another  period  of  chur(;h  history,  which  ought  to  be 
studied  by  itself,  is  that  which  extends  from  the  death  of 
Theodosius  to  the  general  council  of  Chalcedon.  It  was 
within  this  period  that  the  doctrines  of  the  church,  defined 
by  the  ancient  classic  fathers,  were  digested  into  a  philo- 
sophic system.  It  was  also  that  during  which  tlie  Arian 
Goths,  Suevi  and  Vandals  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  sea  coast  countries  of  the  western  empire,  and  the 


70 

heatl)en  Franks  and  Saxons  took  possession  of  ISTortliern 
Gaul  and  South  Britain. 

Britain  was  abandoned  by  liotnan  arms  about  428, 
and  Ani(lo-Saxons  commenced  tlieir  settlements  there 
in,  or  before  449.  Ere  that  date  the  Franks  had  established 
for  themselves  an  inde})endent  cjovernment  in  Gaul. 
Spain  from  the  beginning  of  the  lifth  century  had  been 
overrun  by  Suevi  and  Vandals,  and  was  now  completely 
given  up  by  the  emperor  of  the  West.  In  427  the  Vandals, 
worstedby  the  Suevi  in  Spain,  passed  over  to  Africa,  and 
conquered  the  whole  of  tliat  province  before  439.  They 
also  reduced  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Sicily  and  the  Balearic 
islands.  The  Alemanni  and  Bui-gundians  had  taken  pos- 
session of  Helvetia,  and  districts  adjoining,  and  the 
Goths,  of  Southern  France.  At  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  little  remained  to  the  Western  empire  beyond 
the  confines  of  Italy.  Panonia,  Dalmatia  and  Noricum 
had  been  taken  by  the  Eastern  empire.  The  Eastern  em- 
pire itself  had,  in  528,  divided  Armenia  with  the  Persians; 
in  441,  it  had  been  ravaged  by  the  Huns  under  Aftila 
from  the  Danube  to  Constantinople  ;  and  in  446  had  sub- 
mitted to  |)a3'  a  yearl}'  tribute  for  the  privilege  of  peace. 
The  period  was  covered  entirely  bv  the  two  successive 
reigns  of  Arcadius  (395—408)  and  Theodosius  II.,  (408 
— 450),  emperors  of  the  East,  parallel  with  those  of 
Honorius  (395—423)  and  of  Valentinian  III.  (423—455), 
emperors  of  the  West, 

Although  the  Western  empire  was,  by  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century,  broken  to  pieces,  and  only  a  fragment 
*  of  it  remaining  under  the  old  dominion,  the  church  stood 
firm,  and  had  received  a  large  addition  to  her  subjects. 
The  old  inhabitants  of  the  provinces  were  not  removed, 
or  extinguished;  Lhey  were  only  subdued  and  gcn-erned 
by  German  invaders  instead  of  by  Romans;  while  the 
invaders,  for  the  most  part,  professed  Christianity  and 
acknowledged  the  jui'isdietion  of  the  church.  The  oUl 
population  was  mostly  orthodox  ;  the  Germanic  incom- 
ers mostly  Arian.  Among  the  Goths  that  doctrine  was 
taught  by  Ulphilas  in  the  fourth  century.  A  Gothic 
bishop  was  present  at  the  council  of  Nice.  The  Bur- 
gundians,  in  413,  came  into  the  church  with  profession 
of  orthodox}'  ;  but  about  450  adopted  Arianism. 


71 

As  a  general  thino;,  those  Arian  masters  did  not  inter- 
fere with  the  religion  of  their  orthodox  sohjects ;  but 
the  Visigoths  in  the  Sonth  of  France,  and  the  Vandals 
in  Africa  were  exceptions  to  the  rnle. 

Christianity  received  an  additional  load  of  corrnp- 
tion  from  those  imperfectly  converted  nations.  During 
this  time,  the  British  isles  were  cut  off  from  the  juris- 
diction of  Rome,  by  the  withdrawal  of  Roman  arms,  by 
the  interposition  of  heathen  Franks  m  the  North  of  Gaul, 
and  also  in  the  succeeding  period  by  the  establishment 
of  heathen  Saxons  in  the  East  and  South  of  Britain. 
Meanwhile  the  old  British  churches  maintained  their 
ground  in  the  Southwest  of  Scotland  ;  from  which  Patri- 
cius,  about  430,  carried  the  gospel  into  Ireland,  It 
spread  with  great  rapidity  over  the  island. 

On  the  extreme  East,  christians  were  subjected  to 
much  oppression  under  rule  of  the  Persian  kings.  From 
343  a  persecution  was  commenced  in  that  quarter  which 
lasted  thirty-five  years,  in  which  thousands  of  christian 
people  with  their  ministers  were  put  to  death.  It  was 
relaxed  about  398;  but  revived  in  418  and  continued 
until  nearly  the  date  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon. 

Subsequently  having  adopted  the  doctrines  of  Nes- 
torius,  Persian  christians,  finding  themselves  under  cen- 
sure of  the  churches  in  the  West,  and  separating  from 
them  and  their  relations  to  the  Roman  empire,  received 
protection  from  Persia,  as  loyal  subjects.  It  was  not 
however  until  498  that  the  whole  Persian  churcli  declared, 
by  formal  action,  in  favor  of  Nestorianism. 

In  that  part  of  Armenia,  which  in  428  came  under 
Persian  rule,  attempts  were  persisted  in,  for  more  than 
forty  years,  to  establish  the  doctrines  of  the  A  vesta  instead 
of  those  of  the  gospel.  In  485  that  effort  was  abandoned 
as  hopeless.  In  that  same  century  Mesrop  formed  the 
Armenian  alphabet  and  translated  the  Bible  into  the 
popular  tongue. 

Theodosius  11. ,  emperor  of  the  East  issued,  in  423, 
an  edict  in  which  he  expressed  his  belief  that  no  heathen 
were  to  be  found  within  his  dominions. 

In  the  process  of  framing  such  an  expression  of  christ- 
ian belief  as  should  be  satisfactory  to  the  church,  it  was 
impossible  to  avoid  controversy.     It  was  by  controversy 


72 

tliat  the  work  had  to  be  done.  The  Ariaii  and  Seini- 
Arian  controversy  led  to  tlie  clearest  statement  of  ortho- 
doxy on  the  subject  of  the  Trinity. 

In  the  Nicene  Creed,  as  revised  aud  extended  at  Con- 
stantinople, were  summed  up  the  best  results  of  previous 
theolotjical  discussion.  Tiiat  was  the  work  chiefly  of 
Greek  theologians.  Latin  writers  make  comparatively 
little  figure  in  it.  Law,  civil  and  moral,  was  the  field  of 
thought  in  which  those  who  spoke  the  Latin  tongue  had 
proved  themselves  superior  to  all  rivals.  And  now  a 
work  remained  to  be  done  for  the  church  which  they 
were  better  than  any  others  qualified  to  do.  That  was 
twofold;  first,  definition  of  the  Scriptural  doctrine  of 
man's  relations  to  God;  and  second,  the  complete  syste- 
matic and  practical  statement  and  exposition  of  the  whole 
body  of  truth  as  then  defined  or  accepted.  And  that 
was  also  effected  through  controversy. 

When  Alaric  the  Goth  was  threatening  Rome  in  the 
year  410,  Pelagius,  a  native,  it  is  thought,  of  Britain,  and 
who  had  been  residing  in  Rome,  wls  among  the  refugees 
to  Sicily.  He  thence  proceeded  to  Africa  accompanied 
by  his  friend  Coelestius  and  others.  From  Africa  he 
soon  afterwards  went  to  Palestine  leaving  Coelestius  at 
Carthage.  Coelestius  applying  to  be  ordained  Presbyter, 
was  charged  with  errors  tending  to  exalt  unscripturally 
human  free  will.  He  was  excluded  from  the  church  at 
Carthage,  and  went  to  Ephesus.  His  doctrines  were 
understood  to  be  the  same  as  those  taught  by  Pelagius. 
Accordingly,  Pelagius  was  himself  accused  before  the 
,bishop  of  Jerusalem,  within  whose  jurisdiction  he  was 
then  residing,  aud  afterwards  in  415  before  the  synod  of 
Diospolis,  as  Lydda  in  Palestine  was  then  called,  but 
without  being  condemned.  Other  councils,  in  various 
quarters,  rejected  his  doctrines.  Zosimus  bishop  of 
Rome  first  approved,  and  afterwards  condemned  them. 
But  they  also  found  acceptance  and  defence,  especially 
in  the  East.  In  the  West  their  principal  advocate  was 
Julian  of  Eclanum  in  Italy. 

Those  theologians  held  that  man's  moral  nature 
received  no  injury  in  the  fall  of  Adam  ;  that  man  is  now 
born,  as  fully  as  Adam  was  made,  able  to  do  the  will  of 
God;  that  all    sin  consists  in  the  intelligent  choice  of 


73 

evi!  ;  and  that  in  order  to  turn  from  sin  unto  riij^liteons- 
ness  notliinc:  is  needed  but  a  cliange  of  purpose  on  the 
part  of  the  sinner.  A  hio;lier  degree  of  blessedness  and 
greater  facility  in  attaining  it  are  accessible  through 
christian  sacraments  and  instruction.  As  the  law  was 
formerly  given  to  facilitate  the  attainment  of  goodness, 
so  latterly,  the  gospel  and  example  of  Christ,  and  par- 
ticular opeiations  of  grace.  The  Divine  purpose  for 
man's  salvation  is  founded  on  the  Divine  foreknowledge 
of  human  action  ;  and  makes  no  demand  which  man  has 
not  full  ability  to  com[)ly  with. 

Among  the  opponents  of  Pelagins  were  Jerome  and 
Augustine,  The  latter,  especially,  in  this  controversy, 
wrought  out  those  statements  of  the  doctrines  of  grace 
whicli  lie  at  the  foundation  of  orthodox  theologj'.  The 
views  of  Augustine  were  ecclesiastically  confirmed  by 
the  African  synods,  and  the  Western  church  generally. 
Pelagianism  under  the  name  of  Coelestius,  was  condemned 
at  the  general  council  of  Ephesus  in  431,  although  the 
Augustinian  doctrines  of  grace  and  predestination  were 
not  adopted  by  the  eastern  christians. 

Pelagianism  is  the  root  of  a  number  of  heresies  within 
the  iield  of  Anthropology,  like  Monarchianism  in  that  of 
theology.  Under  the  head  of  theology  error  lies  on  the 
one  hand  to  Monarchianism,  on  the  other  to  Polytheism; 
under  that  of  Anthropology,  in  the  direction  of  Pelagian- 
ism, or  fatalism.  Ancient  orthodoxy  lay  between  tlie 
extremes,  although  not  orthodox  for  that  reason,  but  for 
accordance  with  Scripture  and  christian  experience.  It 
was  expressed  in  the  creed  for  Theology,  and  by  Augus- 
tine for  Antliropology, 

After  the  action  of  the  council,  complete  Pelagianism 
ceased  to  be  professed  to  any  great  extent,  while  an  inter- 
mediate ground  between  that  doctrine  and  Augustinian- 
ism,  which  may  be  called  Semi-Pelagian,  was  taken  by 
many  of  the  churches  in  the  east.  It  was  also  accepted 
in  some  places  in  the  West,  as  introduced  by  John  Cas- 
siau,  a  pupil  of  Chrysostom. 

Augustine  was  a  native  of  Africa,  born  at  Tagaste  in 
Numidia,  about  354,  studied  and  practiced  the  profession 
of  rhetoric,  was  not  converted  until  over  thirty-three 
years  of  age,  became  bishop  of  Hippo  in  395,  and  died 


74 

in  429.  His  wi-itings  were  itunierous,  but  his  o^reat  work, 
stating  and  defending  the  essential  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity is  his  "  De  Qmiate  Bei^ 

The  controversy  touching  the  sonship  of  Christ  in 
Godhead  was  folh)wed  by  one  concerning  the  relation  of 
the  Divine  Logos  to  the  human  nature  of  Jesus, 

Apollinaris,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  from  362  to  about 
392,  holding  that  natural  man  consists  of  three  constit- 
uents, body,  spirit  and  soul,  taught  that  Jesus  had  no 
human  soul,  and  that  the  Divine  Logos  took  its  place. 
Some  theologians  were  the  more  disposed  to  accept  that 
view,  that  they  believed  the  soul  of  man  to  be  a  part  of 
God.  In  that  case,  if  it  was  proper  to  spefk  of  an 
ordinary  man's  mother  as  the  mother  of  his  soul,  it  might 
be  equally  proper  to  speak  of  the  Virgin  Mary  as  the 
mother  of  God,  ^soroxoc-  And  that  fell  in  with,  and  sus- 
tained a  practice  already  common  in  many  congregations. 

ApoUinarianism  was  rejected  by  the  general  council 
at  Constantinople  in  38L  It  had  contributed  however  to 
that  element  of  definition,  wliich  recognized  the  perfect 
humanity  of  the  Savior. 

In  making  clear  distinction  between  the  human  and 
divine  in  Christ,  some  felt  constrained  to  condemn  the 
growing  practice  of  paying  reverence  to  the  Virgin 
Mary,  as  the  mother  of  God.  Such  was  the  ground  taken 
by  Nestorius,  who  was  made  bisjiop  of  Constantinople, 
in  428.  Dorotheus,  one  of  his  clergy  when  preaching 
one  day,  denied  that  it  was  proper  to  call  Mary  deozoxo^. 
The  congregation  raised  an  outcry  of  disapprobation 
and  left  the  house.  ISTestorius  defended  the  presbyter. 
Others  of  his  clergy  deserted  him;  and  some  of  them 
he  deposed.  The  question  soon  became  one  of  general 
concern. 

The  doctrine  defended  by  Nestorius  was  that  of  the 
separate  existence  of  the  divine  and  human  natures  in 
Christ.  And  according  -to  his  view,  to  speak  of  Mary 
as  mother  of  the  divine  nature  was  blasphemy. 

ISTestorianism  was  condemned  by  the  general  council 
at  Ephesus  in  431,  and  Nestorius  was  deposed.  The 
minority  was  so  strong,  and  both  parties  so  violent  that 
appeal  was  made  to  the  emperor.  In  the  end,  Nestorius 
was   banished   to  an   oasis   of  upper  Egypt,   about  435. 


75 

lie  died  in  exile.  But  a  large  part  of  tlie  Eastern  church, 
chiefly  that  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Euphrates,  sustained 
his  doctrines.  In  498,  the}-  were  accepted  as  the  pro- 
fessed creed  of  the  churches  in  Persia  and  the  further 
east,  which  thereb}"  separated  tor  ever  from  the  Catholic 
connection. 

In  the  controversy  with  Xestorius,  some  disputants, 
at  wliose  head  was  Cyril  bishop  of  Alexandria,  defended 
the  opposite  doctrine  to  an  extreme.  The  successor  of 
Cyril  in  the  see  of  Alexandria,  Dioscorus,  from  444  till 
451,  was  still  more  violent  in  the  same  cause.  Eutyches, 
an  abbot  in  Constantinople,  was  in  448,  condemned  by  a 
local  synod  in  that  city  for  teaching  that  the  human  in 
Christ  was  so  merged  in  the  divine  as  to  make  only  one 
nature.  A  letter  from  Leo  I.  ot  Rome  to  Flavian  of 
Constantinople  approved  of  that  action  and  defined  what 
he  thought  the  true  doctrine  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ. 

The  censure  of  Eutyches  bore  hard  upon  Dioscorus 
also.  A  general  council  was  summoned  to  meet  at 
Ephesus  next  year  (449).  Dioscorus,  as  president,  pro- 
cured a  resolution  in  favor  of  Eut^'ches,  and  the  Alexan- 
drian doctrine,  and  an  act  of  deposition  against  Flavian. 
From  its  violence  that  council  was  branded  as  the  Rob- 
ber Synod;  but  it  was  sustained  b}'  the  emperor,  Theo- 
dosius  11.  Xext  year  Theodosius  died.  The  new 
emperor,  Marcian,  took  the  other  side,  and  strongly  dis- 
approved of  the  conduct  and  doctrines  of  Dioscorus.  A 
new  general  council  was  called,  to  meet  at  Chalcedon  in 
451.     It  is  counted  the  fourth. 

Dioscorus  was  deposed,  Eutyches  was  condemned, 
Nestorianism  was  also  rejected,  Leo's  letter  to  Flavian 
was  approved,  while  the  council  gave  their  own  state- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of"  One  Christ  in  two  natures,  the 
two  natures  united,  without  confusion,  without  conver- 
sion, inseparably  and  perpetually." 

The  council  also  recognized  tlie  existing  Metropolitan 
and  Patriarchal  ranks  of  bishops,  and  sanctioned  the 
latter  as  a  higlier  rank,  and  as  endued  with  higher  pow- 
ers of  jurisdiction.  At  that  date  the  Patriarchs  were 
five;  those  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 
Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  Reference  is  also  made,  in  the 
canons    of  the   council,   to   the    Patriarchs    of    the   two 


76 

imperial  capitals  as  entitled  to  higher  honor  than  the 
rest.  The  great  church  of  Carthage  was  now  humbled 
to  the  earth  by  the  conquest  of  the  Vandals. 

Both  forms  of  the  creed,  namely,  those  of  Nice  and 
of  Constantinople,  were  confirmed  ;  as  that  of  the  318 
fathers  of  Nice,  and  of  the  150  fathers  of  Constantinople, 
and  Nestorian  and  other  variant  doctrines,  which  had 
arisen  in  the  interval,  were  condemned  by  re-statement 
of  doctrines  professed,  or  implied  in  those  symbols. 

That  council  also  contirmed  certain  canons  of  five 
provincial  councils,  namely  of  Ancj-ra  315,  of  Neo- 
Cgesarea  in  Pontus,  315  or  316,  of  Gangra,  between  325 
and  311,  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  311,  and  of  Laodicea, 
somewliere  about  365. 

RECAPITULATION    OF    CONTROVERSIES. 

The  Person  of  Christ  is  the  first  and  cardinal  point 
of  christian  doctrine.  The  principal  controversies  con- 
cerning it  are 

1.  With  Judaism,  establishing  the  sufiiciency  of  Christ 
in  himself  as  the  savior,  and  his  true  Godhead. 

2.  With  Docetae,  in  defence  of  his  true  humanity. 

3.  Of  his  divine  nature  as  related  to  God  the  Father, 
and  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  well  as  to  the  whole  system  of 
the  universe;  discussed  in  the  theories  of  Gnosticism 
and  the  debates  concerning  Montanus;  and  the  subse- 
quent system  of  the  Manichees. 

4.  With  theories  of  Monarchianism — Humanitarian, 
Patripassian,  Sabellian. 

5.  With  those  which  sprang  out  of  the  theology  of 
Origen,  especially  that  of  Arius. 

6.  With  the  Semi-Arians. 

7.  With  the  Apollinarian  doctrine  on  one  side  and 
the  Nestorian  on  the  other,  touching  the  relations  of  the 
divine  to  the  human  in  Christ. 

8.  And  with  that  of  Eutyches  and  Dioscorus, 

9.  Questions  of  anthropological  doctrine  were  brought 
out  chiefly  as  related  to  the  prime  question  of  Clirist,  but 
also  in  treating  points  of  discipline,  controversies  on  the 
subject  of  the  lapsed,  on  the  schisms  of  Novatian,  Felicis- 
simus,  Donatus,  until  the  rise  of  Pelagianism. 


77 

10.  The  rejection  of  Pelagianisni  left  behind  the  inoro 
widespread  and  enduring  heresy  of  Semi-pehigianism. 

So  far,  christian  controversies  were  marked  b}'  fea- 
tures of  ancient  classical  thinking,  even  when  dealing 
with  oriental  speculation  ;  from  the  council  of  j^ice  to 
that  of  Chalcedon  is  the  golden  age  of  Patristic  litera- 
ture. Those  which  followed,  for  several  hundred  years, 
were  in  the  spirit  of  the  mediaeval. 

Christian  sacraments  and  originally  simple  customs 
were  now  surrounded  with  a  parade  of  ceremonial  forms, 
pictures  were  introduced  into  the  churches,  not  as  objects 
of  worship,  but  as  helps  to  piety,  and  some  things  were 
retained  from  tlie  old  state  religion,  and  as  converted  to 
Christia!)  meaning,  under  tiie  plea  that  people  accustomed 
to  see  them,  would  thereby  be  attracted  to  come  to 
church.  Preaching,  in  the  tifth  century,  had  also  assimi- 
lated in  some  respects  to  the  character  of  secular  ha- 
rangues, and  in  some  of  the  city  churches,  at  least,  it  was 
not  unusual  for  the  congregations  to  give  noisy  demon- 
stration of  their  disapproval  or  applause.  The  memory 
of  martyrs  had  come  to  receive  such  a  degree  of  venera- 
tion that  preachers  would  appeal  to  them  in  their  ser- 
mons, and  invoke  their  intercession  with  God.  Their 
relics  were  collected  and  deposited  in  churches.  The 
Virgin  Mary  received  peculiar  reverence;  and  the  cross, 
all  along  honored  as  a  symbol,  had  now  become  an  object 
of  idolaU-ous  veneration.  That  feeling  was  intensitied 
after  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine,  had  discovered, 
as  she  thought,  the  true  cross,  on  which  the  Savior  died. 
In  the  tifth  century  the  crucifix,  that  is,  the  cross  with  a 
figure  representing  the  Saviour  suspended  upon  it,  began 
to  be  used. 

It  was  also  during  this  period  that  the  clergy  began 
to  wear  a  peculiar  costume,  while  engaged  in  divine  ser- 
vice; and  after  heathen  fashion  in  some  of  tlie  churches 
artificial  lights  were  used  in  the  day  time.  Burning  of 
incense  was  also  introduced. 

Singing  in  responses  was  first  practiced  at  A.ntioch, 
spread  to  other  places  in  the  east,  and  was  transferred  to 
the  west  by  Ambrose. 

Festival  days  increased  in  number,  and  some  formerly 
of    only    local    observance,    became    general,    or   were 


78 

appointed  to  be  held  with  more  regularity.  In  the  west, 
the  2oth  of  December  was  appointed  l)y  Julins,  bishop  of 
Rome  between  337  and  352,  to  be  observed  as  the  birth- 
day of  the  Lord.  From  Rome  the  practice  extended  to 
different  provinces,  to  Antioch  about  376  and  to  Alex- 
andria about  430.  Heathen  literature  and  science  had 
still  their  devotees.  At  Athens  and  Alexandria  the  poly- 
theistic schools  of  pliilosophy  were  still  in  existence. 

Ry  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  schools  of  the 
church  had  begun  to  decline,  with  the  interest  in  educa- 
tion which  maintained  them.  JNIonks  had  already 
increased  enormously,  and  their  extravagances  and  bar- 
barism had  become  the  disgrace  of  the  christian  name. 
The  emperor  Valens  attempted  to  restrain  tiieir  increase 
by  authority,  but  without  etiect.  Some  of  them  were 
men  of  learning,  but  as  a  general  thing  they  were  ignor- 
ant, despised  learning,  and  wielded  a  powerful  influence 
against  it.  To  them,  more  than  to  Goth  and  Vandal, 
was  the  degeneracy  of- public  intelligence  due.  The 
stoppage  of  education  bears  its  fruit  not  immediatelv, 
but  needs  for  it  only  one  generation. 

As  early  as  the  second  century  tales  had  been  fabri- 
cated of  the  Savior  and  of  his  apostles,  and  heathen 
prophecies  of  Him  and  his  work,  either  fabricated  or 
interpolated,  as  in  the  case  of  the  apocryphal  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  the  Sibylline  oracles.  The  most 
remarkable  of  such  productions  were  the  books  called 
the  Clementines.  They  consisted  of  two  epistles  ad- 
dressed to  the  apostle  James  at  Jerusalem,  and  twenty 
.homilies  professing  to  be  the  doctrinal  and  polemical 
discourses  of  the  apostle  Peter.  Clement  bishop  of  Rome 
appeals  as  the  author.  They  are  thought  to  have  been 
composed  at  Rome  about  the  end  of  the  second  century. 
Of  these  homilies  tliere  is  an  epitome  also  in  Greek. 
There  are  other  writings  of  the  same  kind  ascribed  to 
Clement,  especially  the  Recognitions,  which  we  have  in 
a  Latin  translation,  made  by  Rutin  us  who  died  in  410, 
as  a  connected  narrative  in  ten  books.  Among  the 
manuscripts  found  in  the  desert  of  Nitria,  which  are  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  there  is  an  unprinted  Syrian 
translation  of  the  Clementines,  wliich  is  said  to  differ 
greatly  from    both    the   Greek   and  Latin.     The  subject 


79 

seems  to  have  been  a  theme  of  religious  romauce  upon 
which  successive  writers  felt  free  to  compose  variations. 

To  the  same  period  with  the  translation  of  the 
Recognitions  are  the  Apostolic  Coiistitutions  probably  to 
be  referred.  That  collection  of  ecclesiastical  rules  is  put 
forth  as  the  work  of  the  apostles,  collectively,  wdio  also 
speak  in  their  own  names  separately  of  what  they  were 
taught  by  the  Lord.  It  is  found  in  use  at  the  end  of  the 
tifth  century,  and  no  mention  of  it  occurs  earlier  than 
the  end  of  the  fourth.  By  gross  anachronisms  much  of 
it  is  convicted  of  forgery.  The  Apostolic  canons,  a 
smaller  collection  of  similar  kind,  came  also  into  use 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  and  is  obnoxious  to 
the  same  charge. 

Many  of  the  evils  of  the  time  were  due  to  the  haste 
wnth  which  multitudes  of  half  converted  heathen  were 
received  into  christian  communion  upon  simple  profes- 
sion, made  in  many  cases  only  because  their  kings  had 
been  converted.  After  the  full  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity as  the  state  religion,  and  the  profession  of  heathen- 
ism was  made  unlawful,  it  came  to  be  the  practice  of  the 
church  to  comprehend  all  the  population  of  the  empire 
as  in  some  shape  or  other  its  proper  charge.  The  strict 
rules  of  the  early  christians  touching  admission  to  their 
communion  were  thus  done  away  or  rendered  inopera- 
tive. It  was  a  stupendous  effort,  for  which  the  early 
church  was  called  upon, — the  regeneration  of  a  world 
lying  in  iniquity,  such  deep  and  almost  hopeless  iniquity. 
It  is  not  strange  that  the  human  agency  was  sometimes 
at  fault,  that  mistakes  were  made,  and  that  some  of  the 
overflowing  corruption  invaded  her  own  bounds.  The 
subject  of  wonder  is  that  the  good  was  not  entirely 
swamped  in  the  billows  of  evil  raging  on  every  side. 
Among  the  christian  writings  of  that  time  copious  evi- 
dence i8  found  of  warm  scriptural  piety,  and  most  of  the 
acts  of  councils  testify  to  the  same  purport,  as  well  as 
the  lives  of  many  devoted  men  and  women. 

III.      451—607. 

Christianity  in   Pride  of  Dominion. 

Another  section  of  Church  History  is  very  distinctly 
marked  by  important   changes  between  the   council  of 


80 

Chalcedon  and  the  death  of  Boniface  III.  bisliop  of 
Rome,  that  is  from  451  to  607.  It  is  tlie  period  of  rivalry 
for  dominion  in  the  cliurcli  between  tlie  Patri;irchs  of 
Constantinople  and  of  iiome.  At  tlie  council  of  Chalce- 
don they  had  been  recognized  as  entitled  to  liigher  honor 
than  the  rest.  From  that  date  it  became  an  object  of 
ambition  witli  botli  to  secure  each  for  his  own  see  the 
honor  of  sole  superiority.  The  Roman  Patriarch  had 
the  advantage  in  that  his  capital  was  possessed  of  the 
older  prestige  and  associations.  On  the  other  hand,  dur- 
ing most  of  tlie  period  Constantinople  Avas  the  sole  capital 
of  all  the  dominion  that  remained  to  the  empire.  But 
the  east  was  divided  among  four  Patriarchs;  in  the  west 
there  was  only  one.  The  Roman  Patriarch  had  no 
Patriarchs  in  the  west  to  look  to  him  as  superior.  The 
Patriarch  at  Constantinople  was  recognized  as  higlier  in 
honor  than  the  three  other  Patriarchates  of  the  east;  it 
was  not  unnatural  that  he  should  wish  to  add  the  Patri- 
arch at  Rome  to  the  list.  One  sovereign,  or  universal 
bishop,  with  four  Patriarchates  was  needed  to  compl-ete 
the  system  of  clinrch  government  after  the  model  of  the 
state.  The  eastern  domain  of  chiistianity  was  by  far 
the  most  extensive,  and  populous.  But  the  Roman  Patri- 
arch had  already  learned  to  add  some  of  the  duties  of  a 
civil  ruler  to  his  ecclesiastical  functions.  Rome  was  still 
the  imperial  city  in  the  eyes  of  western  nations,  and  the 
claim  of  apostolic  descent  had  more  weight  in  that  quar- 
ter than  in  the  east,  where  all  the  principal  churches  held 
to  it.  Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  in  his  way  it  was 
^  the  Patriarch  at  Constantinople  who  succeeded  in  having 
his  rank  of  universal  bishop  lirst  recognized  by  imperial 
authority.  Rome  then  condennn^d  the  iniquity  of  episco- 
pal ambition. 

The  cruelty  of  the  usur[)ing  emperor  Phocas  alien- 
ated from  hini  all  good  men  in  Constantinople.  He 
received  approval  from  Gregory  I.,  bishop  of  Rome,  and 
from  Boniface  who  was  afterwards  raised  to  that  dignity. 
Bonitace  solicited  and  oljtained  from  Phocas  tlie  transfer 
of  the  title  of  universal  to  the  see  of  Rome.  Boniface 
III.  became  Pope  in  607,  and  died  before  the  end  of  that 
year.  Eastern  prelates  did  not  admit  the  validity  of  that 
act  of  a  usurper;  and  the  alienation  between  the  two 
ijreat  Patriarchs  became  wider  than  before. 


81 

In  the  state,  the  period  thus  defined  was  no  less 
momentous.  After  tlieii*  defeat  at  Chalons  in  451,  the 
Huns  fell  back  upon  Italy,  and  the  last  rem.nant  of  the 
western  empire  was  spared  for  a  few  years  only  by  the 
death  of  Attila.  In  455,  the  Vandals  crossed  over  from 
Africa  to  Italy,  took  Rome  and  plundered  it.  Until  472 
the  holders  of  nominal  empire  in  that  quarter  were  set 
up  by  German  leaders.  Finally  in  476,  Odoacer,  king 
of  the  Ilerulians,  and  leader  of  the  German  troops  in 
Roman  pay,  assumed  the  sovereignty  himself  under  the 
title  of  King  of  Italy.  In  492,  Odoacer  was  overthrown, 
and  the  Gothic  kingdom  of  Italy  set  up  by  Theodoric. 
That  Kingdom  was  extinguished  by  the  forces  of  the 
eastern  empire  under  command  of  Belisarius  in  539,  and 
afterwards  of  Narses.  Italy  thereby  became  a  Byzantine 
province,  until  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards  in  568, 
when  it  was  divided  between  them  and  the  eastern 
empire;  the  capital  of  the  former  being  Pavia,  and  the 
seat  of  the  Greek  exarch,  Ravenna.  Rome  had  ceased 
to  be  of  any  general  political  importance. 

In  Gaul  the  Franks  secured  supreme  dominion.  The 
Visigoths,  whom  they  drove  out  of  the  South  of  that 
country  in  507  had  before  that  date  subdued  the  Suevi, 
and  set  up  the  Gothic  kingdom  of  Spain.  The  Saxons 
in  Britain  had  established  their  dominion  over  all  the 
best  of  England,  and  driven  the  Romanized  Britons  to 
the  north  and  extreme  west. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Vandals  in  Africa  and  Sicily- 
were  reduced  by  the  arms  of  Belisarius  and  those 
countries  annexed  to  the  eastern  empire. 

In  Constantinople,  the  imperial  authority  after  454 
passed  through  a  succession  of  feeble  hands,  until  Justin- 
ian, who,  from  527  to  565,  by  the  wisdom  of  his  legal 
uigests,  and  the  success  of  his  arms,  went  far  towards 
a  restoration  of  the  imperial  dignity.  His  successors 
until  602  were  good  men,  but  did  not  maintain  the  same 
course  of  prosperity.  Mauritius,  in  602,  was  murdered 
with  his  family,  by  the  centurion  Phocas,  who  in  a 
mutinj'  of  the  soldiers  had  usurped  the  throne. 

From  Apostolic  times  the  church  needed,  and  pos- 
sessed certain  rules  whereby  those  who  joined  her  com- 
munion were  to  regulate  their  conduct.     The  wisdom  of 


82 

the  early  fathers  increased  the  number.  To  these  were 
added  the  decisions  of  councils.  Collections  were  sub- 
sequently made  of  such.  In  the  fifth  century  we  find 
mention  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  and  the  Apos- 
tolical canons.  In  the  sixth  century,  appeared  tlie  col- 
lection of  Dionysius  Exiguus,  in  the  west,  and  of  Johan- 
nes Scholasticus,  in  the  east,  laying  the  foundations  upon 
which  afterwards  arose  the  structure  of  the  canon  law. 

In  the  history  of  theology  the  principal  feature  of  the 
time  was  the  prolonged  Monophysite  controversy.  The 
council  of  Chalcedon,  after  deposing  Dioscorus  from  the 
Patriarchate  of  Alexandria,  appointed  Proterius  in  his 
room.  But  a  large  party  in  Egypt  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge the  new  bishop,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  council. 
They  denied  the  existence  of  two  natures  in  Christ,  or 
rather,  held  that  the  two  natures,  human  and  divine,  are 
so  united  as  to  constitute  but  one  nature,  yet  without 
conversion  of  one  into  the  other  and  without  confusion 
of  both.  Various  names  were  given  them,  but  the  most 
common  was  that  expressive  of  their  doctrine  of  oneness 
of  nature  in  the  Savior,  Muvoiffjmra:,  while  they  called 
their  opponents  /luoi/'oalra:,  or  J:(/'U(j7tm.  The  headquar- 
ters of  the  controvers}'  were  Antioch  and  A  lexandria,  the 
two  great  theological  schools  of  the  east.  Both  parties 
carried  violence  to  an  extreme,  disgraceful  to  their  chris- 
tian profession.  Emperors  several  times  stepped  in  to 
allay  the  ferment,  but  with  little  success.  Zeno  Isauri- 
cus,  in  452,  issued  a  creed  called  the  Henoticon,  which 
he  thought  both  parties  raiglit  agree  upon.  Instead  of 
,  effecting  union,  it  raised  a  new^  subject  of  dispute.  The 
bishop  of  Rome,  and  the  western  churches  in  general 
took  part  in  opposition  to  the  Monophy sites.  Justinian 
defended  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  but  endeavored  to 
restore  unit}'  and  peace.  The  empress,  Theodora,  favored 
the  Monophysites,  and  also  professed  to  labor  for  con- 
ciliation. Neither  of  them  had  much  success.  After 
several  fruitless  attempts,  the  emperor  called  a  general 
council  to  meet  at  Constantinople  in  553.  The  council 
condemned  Monophysite  doctrine  as  heresy.  In  that 
action  Pelagiusl.  of  Rome  coincided,  but  thereby  created 
a  tedious  schism  in  the  west.  In  the  east  the  result  was 
a  final  secession  of  a  great  number  of  churches  covering 


83 

a  belt  of  country  from  the  northern  borders  of  iVrmenia, 
tbrongh  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Palestine  and  Egypt,  south- 
ward ""to  the  southern  extremities  of  Etliiopia.  It  did 
much  to  reduce  the  importance  of  both  Alexandria  and 
Antioch,  as  schools  of  theology,  a  loss  which  they  never 
retrieved. 

The  disgraceful  scenes,  which  occurred  in  the  course 
of  this  confroversy,  were  chiefly  due  to  the  part  taken  in 
it  by  monks,  who  now  swarmed  in  all  oriental  Christen- 
dom in  such  numbers  as  seriously  to  diminish  the  ranks 
of  industry.  If  merely  to  be  in  earnest  were  true  godli- 
ness, the  highest  merit  could  not  be  denied  to  most  of 
them;  but  so  to  judge  would  be  to  transform  Christianity 
into  fanaticism.  Some  of  their  extravagancies  would  be 
incredible,  were  they  not  testfied  to  by  eye  witnesses. 
Such  were  the  stylite  saints,  one  of  whom  called  Simeon 
died  in  459,  after  having  lived  37  years  on  the  top  of  a 
pillar.  In  the  west  such  wild  extremes  of  asceticism 
never  met  with  mucli  favor.  For  that,  sometliing  was 
due  to  Benedict  of  Xursia,  who  in  the  year  529,  founded 
a.  monastery  on  Mount  Casinus  in  Italy,  with  a  greatly 
improved  system  of  rules.  That  system  distributed  the 
time  of  the'monks,  in  a  strict  and  sensible  way,  between 
devotion,  study  and  manual  labor  :  and  for  several  gene- 
rations its  working  was  enforced  with  more  than  military 
severity.  The  rule  of  Benedict  was  the  true  foundation 
of  western  monasticism,  as  distinguished  from  the  eastern. 

And  yet  we  must  not  include  all  the  ascetics  of  the 
east  under  one  indiscriminate  censure.  Among  them 
are  to  be  found  cases,  like  that  of  Isidore  of  Pelusium, 
marked  by  true  scriptural  faith  and  warm  love  to  the 
Savior,  a  real  hungering  and  thirsting  after  righteous- 
ness. 

It  was  in  534  and  535  that  the  arms  of  Belisarius 
overthrew  the  Arian  Vandals  in  Africa  and  Sicily,  and 
gave  freedom  to  the  Ortliodox.  A  similar  service  was 
done  for  Italy  in  the  final  defeat  of  the  Gothic  Kingdom 
there,  in  553. 

Id  496  Clovis  King  of  the  Franks,  induced  by  the 
entreaties  of  his  queen,  a  Burgundian  princess,  and  cer- 
tain circumstances  of  his  life,  assumed  the  profession  of 
Christianity.     A  great  number  of  his  people  followed  his 


84 

example  immediately.  His  sister  and  three  thousand  of 
his  army  were  baptized  on  the  same  occasion,  and  came 
into  the  church  professino^  the  orthodox  faith.  In  596, 
a  mission  from  Rome,  sent  out  by  Gregory  I.,  to  the 
Anglo-saxons  in  England,  planted  itself  in  Kent,  where 
it  met  with  favor  from  kingEthelbert,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  his  wife,  who  was  a  Frank. 

In  receiving  the  title  universal,  the  bishop  of  Rome 
enjoyed  the  imperial  gift  of  the  highest  honor  as  a  min- 
ister of  religion.  It  was  an  empty  honor.  Because  the 
Byzantine  Patriarch  never  withdrew  his  pretension,  and 
the  eastern  church  never  admitted  that  of  Rome  ;  but  it 
was  a  ground  whereon  every  ettbrt  to  reach  a  real  eccle- 
siastical monarchy  could  be  justified.  To  that  rank  the 
Roman  hierarch  had  risen  by  several  successive  steps. 
First,  that  in  which  he  was  pastor  of  one  congregation  ; 
second,  that  in  which  he  was  the  presiding  officer  of  sev- 
eral congregations  ministered  to  by  presbyters  ;  third,  in 
the  process  of  church  extension,  and  annexation  of  mission 
and  other  congregations  in  neighljoring  towns,  whose 
ministers  were  bishops,  he  became  the  chief  bishop  over 
some  other  bishops,  their  Primus  ;  fourth,  under  the  con- 
stitution of  Constantine,  he  received  the  importance 
assigned  to  bishops  in  the  chief  cities  of  Prefectures,  be- 
coming thereby  one  of  the  four  great  metropolitans  ;  fifth, 
when  their  rank,  with  that  of  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
was  recognized  under  the  title  of  patriarch,  as  superior 
to  that  of  the  exarchs  of  dioceses,  at  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon,  the  patriarchs  of  Rome  and  of  Constantinople 
.were  assigned  a  higher  honor  than  the  other  patriarchs; 
and  sixth,  when  both  these  dignitaries  aimed  at  being 
soverei'gn,  the  title  of  that  rank  first  conferred  by  impe- 
rial favor  upon  the  Bj'zantine  Patriarch,  was  subsequently 
by  the  same  authority  transferred  to  the  Roman.  That 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  latter  subsequently  increased,  and 
that  of  the  former  diminished,  was  du(!  to  other  than 
ecclesiastical  causes.  That  growth  was  a  natural  devel- 
opment. No  stage  of  it,  except  the  last,  was  a  precon- 
certed imposition  upon  the  church,  although  unjustifiable 
means  were  sometimes  used  to  sustain  them  all  when  once 
reached.  The}-  successively  grew  naturally  out  of  original 
mistakes,  in  adopting  certain  principles  from  the  muni- 


85 

cipal  idea  in  the  heart  of  the  civil  government ;  especially 
tlie  method  of  church  extension,  and  in  admitting  of  only- 
one  bishop  in  one  city. 

During  the  frequent  invasions  of  Ital}-  in  the  tifth  and 
sixth  centuries  and  the  separation  of  Rome  from  other 
dominions  of  the  empire,  tlie  bishop  of  that  city  had  often 
to  take  upon  himself  the  execution  of  civil  duties,  not 
from  ambition,  but  from  the  necessities  of  the  case.  His 
office  thereby  became,  in  course  of  time,  associated  with 
civil  authority,  although  only  incidentally.  The  preten- 
sion that  it  has  always  been  from  the  days  of  the  apostles 
what  it  is  now,  or  rather  what  it  was  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  is  clearly  and  positively  contradicted  by  history. 

In  the  course  of  the  fifth  century  we  enter  upon  the 
period  of  time  commonly  called  the  middle  ages.  Its 
true  limits  are  on  one  side,  the  extinction  of  the  western 
empire,  in  476,  and  on  the  other,  the  taking  of  Constan- 
tinople by  the  Turks,  in  1453.  That  is,  politically  con- 
sidered, the  middle  ages  are  those  which  intervened  be- 
tween the  termination  of  the  western  empire  and  that  of 
the  eastern.  During  all  that  time  there  is  an  emperor  in 
the  east;  but  during  most  of  it,  none  in  the  west;  and 
only  for  brief  periods,  one  whose  authority  extended  over 
Rome.  The  bishops  accordingly,  who  would  otherwise 
have  been  second,  became  first  in  government  from  that 
city  :  while  at  Constantinople, the  bishop  continued  to  be 
a  subject  of  the  emperor.  Still,  the  superiority  of  the 
popes  over  the  civil  rulers  in  the  west  was  never  admitted 
by  the  latter,  when  strong  enough  to  resist  it. 

In  taking  a  general  view  of  the  middle  ages,  we  shall 
find  first  a  process  of  dissolution,  extending  to  all  the 
structure  of  civilization  ;  secondly,  a  process  of  settlement 
of  new  peoples,  and  by  new  methods;  and  tliirdly,  a  pro- 
cess of  growth,  in  a  new  style  of  culture. 

The  middle  ages  are  not  all  equally  dark  ages. 
Gloomiest,  I  think,  are  the  latter  years  of  the  fifth  century, 
the  sixth,  the  seventh,  most  of  the  eighth,  the  whole  of 
the  tenth  and  first  half  of  the  eleventh. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  the  popu- 
larity of  christian  profession  was  at  its  highest.  Heathen- 
ism had  long  ago  become  utterly  unfashionable,  within 
the  bounds  of  what  had  once  been  the  empire;  and  was 


86 

fast  nieltino;  away  before  tlie  outward  progress  of  at  least 
nominal  Cliristianity,  in  all  directions.  We  may  con- 
template the  church,  at  that  date,  as  consisting  of  three 
grand  divisions  ;  first,  the  Latin  Cliurch,  comprehending 
all  the  soutliwest  of  Europe,  and  north  of  Africa;  second, 
the  Greek  Churcli;  and  third,  the  Oriental  Churches,  con- 
sisting of  the  two  great  divisions  of  Monophysite,  and 
Nestorian,  extending  over  all  north  eastern  Africa,  and 
western  Asia,  and  as  far  east  as  India  and  China.  Never 
perhaps  did  the  pride  of  power,  of  pervasive  and  all- 
absorbing  popularity  so  fill  the  mind  of  the  church.  That 
success  had  not  been  attained  without  earnestness  and 
truth  of  faith;  but  unhappily  also  with  the  introduction 
of  many  an  error  through  the  haste  to  be  great,  and  to 
have  nations  born  in  a  day. 

IV.     607—752. 

Humiliation   of  the  Eastern    Churches.     Increasing 
Power  of  the  Western  Patriarchate. 

The  period  intervening  between  the  death  of  Boni- 
face III.,  and  the  accession  of  Stephen  II.,  that  is;  from 
607  until  752,  includes  another  stage  in  tlie  development 
of  Papalism.  The  former  date  is  that  of  the  death  of 
the  first  bishop  of  Rome,  who  enjoyed  the  title  of  uni- 
versal, the  latter  is  that  of  the  accession  of  the  first  who 
took  his  place  as  a  temporal  prince.  Moreover  it  was  a 
time  of  great  adversity  to  the  church.  Both  of  the  chief 
patriarchs  suftered  diminution  of  jurisdiction,  but  the 
♦  eastern  most. 

Khosru  king  of  Persia,  who  had  been  restored  to  his 
throne  by  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Mauritius,  now  prepared 
to  take  vengeance  upon  Phocas  for  the  death  of  his  ben- 
efactor. But  ere  his  army  could  reach  Constantinople, 
Heraclius  exarch  of  Africa,  in  610,  had  seized  the  gov- 
ernment and  put  Phocas -to  death.  Khosru  continued 
his  march  until  he  reached  the  Bosphorus,  and  retained 
for  twelve  years  his  hold  upon  Asia  Minor.  Heraclius 
finally,  by  an  invasion  of  Persia,  compelled  him  to  return. 
By  so  long  a  war  both  Persia  and  the  empire  were 
weakened. 

Meanwhile,  about  611,  Mohammed  began  to  teach 
his  doctrines  in  Mecca.     His  object  was  to  overthrow 


87 

idolatry,  and  restore  the^worsliip  of  the  one  unseen  God 
of  his  father  Abraham.  The  different  portions  of  his 
system  were  announced  from  time  to  time,  as  occasion 
called  them  forth,  and  combined  in  one  book  after  his 
death. 

Mohammed  did  not  receive  Christ  as  the  eternal  son 
of  God  ;  but  as  a  divine  teacher,  and  the  greatest  of  the 
prophets,  and  as  miraculously  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
He  also  believed  in  Christ's  divinely  appointed  death, 
resurrection  and  ascension,  and  taught  that  all  should 
believe  in  him  as  the  apostle  of  God  ;  but  not  to  accept 
him  as  a  sufficient  Savior. 

It  was  the  deplorable  corruption  of  tlie  eastern  church, 
not  so  much  in  doctrine,  as  in  life  and  worship,  and  es- 
pecially its  practical  idolatry,  which  lent  the  single,  but 
sublime  truth  of  Mohammedanism  its  early  power. 

Little  progress,  however,  was  made  by  Mohammed  in 
obtaining  converts  until  he  was  constrained  by  persecu- 
tion in  Mecca,  to  flee  to  Medina.  This  event  which 
occurred  on  the  15th  of  July,  622,  is  the  starting  point  of 
the  Mohammedan  era.  From  that  date  his  notoriety 
increased,  and  converts  multiplied,  and  attached  them- 
selves to  his  cause  with  great  enthusiasm.  At  first  he 
used  only  persuasion  ;  latterly  he  received  authority  to 
compel  assent  to  his  doctrines  by  force  of  arms.  Pie  died 
in  632,  asserting  that  God  had  given  the  world  to  be 
conquered  for  Islam.  That  very  year  the  arms  of  his 
followers  were  carried  beyond  the  bounds  of  Arabia. 

The  successors  of  Mohammed  in  office  were  called 
Kalifs.  The  first  was  Abubeker.  In  his  reign  of  two 
^•ears  he  reduced  all  the  countries  between  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Mediterranean  sea.  In  636,  the  last  of  the  impe- 
rial troops  were  driven  out  of  Syria.  Next  year  Jerusa- 
lem was  taken.  Egypt  was  reduced  in  640,  the 
greater  part  of  northern  Africa  in  647,  and  Persia  in  651. 
By  that  date  Mohammedan  conquest  had  extended  to  the 
opposite  extremes  of  Armenia  and  Nubia.  It  took  in 
also  Cyprus  and  Rhodes,  and  advanced  against  Constan- 
tinople, which  was  saved  by  the  use  of  the  Greek  fire. 
From  Mauritania  it  passed  into  Spain,  overran  almost  all 
the  Peninsula,  crossed  the  Pyrenees  into  the  heart  of 
France,  and  met  its  first  check  in  the  valley  of  the  Loire, 


88 

in  732,  from  the  army  of  the  pranks  under  command 
of  Charles  Martel. 

Thus,  within  one  hundred  yeaiv-^,  the  christian  church 
was  overrun,  and  trampled  down  in  Arabia,  Persia,  S^yria, 
Esrypt,  Northern  Africa,  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the 
greater  part  of  tlie  Spanish  peninsula.  The  Patriarchate 
of  Constantinople  was  shorn  of  a  large  part  of  its  juris- 
diction ;  that  of  Rome,  if  we  count  in  her  claims  to  north 
Africa,  was  diminished  by  nearly  one  half,  those  of 
Antioch,  Jerusalem  and  Alexandria,  were  entirely  re- 
duced to  dependencies  of  the  Saracen,  and  the  Nestorian 
churches  of  tlie  further  east  were  overwhelmed,  and  for 
centuries,  many  of  them  forever,  disappeared  from  his- 
tory. 

Of  what  remained  under  christian  dominion,  in  Italy, 
the  Greek  exai-chate  gradually  broke  down  before  the 
increasing  strength  of  the  Lombards,  until  in  752,  it  came 
entire!}'  into  their  possession.  During  the  period  of  its 
existence  the  capital  had  been  Kavenna.  Rome  was  only 
the  head  of  an  inferior  province  of  the  Greek  empire, 
of  which  the  bishop  was  the  chief  authority,  a  serious  dimi- 
nution of  jurisdiction,  but  combined  with  circumstances, 
which  ultimately  went  to  enhirge  it.  Christian  Spain 
was  not  crushed;  but  laid  under  domination  of  an  anti- 
christian  power.  In-  France,  the  military  chiefs  had  as- 
sumed to  a  great  degree  the  control  of  the  church.  In 
Northern  Africa  Christianity  was  not  extinguished,  but,  it 
was  prostrated  under  the  k^aracenic  rule,  without  hope 
of  relief. 

The  churches  of  the  west  in  view  of  such  danger  and 
loss,  turned  their  eyes  with  the  more  interest  to  their 
religious  chief  at  the  old  capital.  Rome,  now  feeble,  still 
possessed  a  great  inheritance  of  prestige,  the  superiority 
of  a  thousand  years,  the  source  of  empire  in  the  west,  of 
religious  observances,  many  of  which  had  come  down  to 
christian,  from  heathen  times.  The  title,  and  rank  of 
sovereign  pontiff,  which  had  been  Avorn  b_y  the  heathen 
emperors  as  chiefs  of  the  old  state  religion,  and  also  by 
the  first  christian  emperors,  was  now  assumed  by  the 
bishop  of  Rome.  Still  the  churches  in  Spain,  Gaul  and 
Britain  had  little  connection  with  that  patriarchal  capital, 
being  governed  by  their  owm  episcopal  authorities  in 
relation  to  the  civil  powers  under  which  they  lived. 


89 

The  pope  was  still  a  subject  of  the  eastern  emperor, 
and  had  to  be  confirmed  in  oflice  by  him,  and  to  pay  him 
taxes.  And  sometimes  the  imperial  hand  fell  heavily 
upon  a  refractory  pope.  Such  an  act  was  always  treas- 
ured up  in  memory  and  handed  down  to  succeeding 
Popes  for  payment.  And  ever}'  advantage  secured  was 
thence  forward  claimed  as  a  right.  Thus,  Pope  Sergius 
rejected  the  canons  of  the  secc^nd  council  in  Trullo,  692. 
Tlie  emperor,  Justinian  II.,  sent  an  officer  to  arrest  him  ; 
but  the  pope  escaped  through  an  insurrection  in  Ravenna. 
The  emperor  was  deposed  in  695,  for  reasons  uncon- 
nected with  the  church,  but  the  victory  remained  with 
the  Papacy.  Justinian  XL,  after  his  restoration  in  705, 
received  Pope  Constantine  in  his  capital,  overloaded  him 
with  extravagant  honors,  and  set  the  example,  of  kissing 
his  foot. 

As  the  weight  of  tlie  empire  continued  to  diminish  in 
Italy,  the  popes  began  to  turn  their  eyes  towards  an  alli- 
ance with  tlie  Frank  leaders.  Gregory  III.,  applied  to 
Charles  Martel,  the  hero  of  Poitiers,  for  that  protection 
against  the  Lombards,  which  liis  own  monarch  was  una- 
ble to  furnish.  Gregory  III.  was  followed  by  Zacharias 
in  741,  in  whose  pontificate  the  polic_y  of  Gregory  became 
a  necessity.  From  the  utter  failure  of  the  secular  arm 
to  defend  Rome,  the  Pope  was  constrained  to  take  upon 
himself  entirely  that  state  business,  which  his  predeces- 
sors had  long  been  more  or  less  sustaining.  Pepin,  the 
son  of  Charles  Martel  in  751  usurped  the  throne  of 
France,  and  applied  to  the  Pope  for  his  sanction.  It  was 
given.  Pepin  was  anointed  King,  and  the  last  Merovin- 
gian went  into  a  cloister.  Zacharias  died  earl}'  next  year. 
His  successor  was  Stephen  11.  The  Lombards  were 
making  war  upon  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  Before  the 
end  of  the  year  they  had  reduced  it.  They  next  turned 
their  arms  against  Rome.  Stephen  applied  to  the  new 
King  of  France  for  aid.  In  the  name  of  the  empire,  and 
as  defender  of  its  territory,  Pepin  led  his  forces  into  Ital}', 
defeated  the  Lombards  and  saved  Rome.  Taking  from 
the  Lombards  what  they  had  recently  conquered  from 
the  emperor,  he  gave  it  to  the  pope.  The  districts  con- 
tained in  that  gift  constituted  the  skeleton  of  what  was 
afterwards  embraced  under  the  name  of  the  States  of  the 


90 

church.  Thus  the  Pope  took  his  place  as  a  secular 
prince.  He  liad  also  allied  himself  with  a  new  and  power- 
ful dynasty  in  the  west,  whose  influence  was  exerted  to 
bring  the  Galilean  church  into  closer  relations  to  Rome. 
A  point  of  authority  was  also  establislied,  in  that  the  first 
king  of  the  new  dynasty  had  solicited  papal  sanction, 
and  accepted  anointment  at  the  hands  of  the  Pope.  The 
Papacy  was  put  into  possession  of  great  wealth.  Alle- 
giance to  the  emperor  was  still  recognized,  but  it  had 
ceased  to  be  more  than  nominal. 

During  this  period  the  principal  theological  question 
was  that  concerning  the  singleness  or  duality  of  will  in 
Christ. 

When  the  emperor  Heracliuswas  in  Syria,  from  622, 
he  became  acquainted  more  intimately  with  the  condi- 
tion of  the  Monophysites,  and  was  persuaded  that  the 
principal  obstacle  to  their  returning  into  the  Catholic 
church  might  be  removed,  by  a  statement  of  doctrine 
representing  the  nature  of  Christ  as  two-fold,  but  the  will 
as  one.  Sergius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  was  con- 
sulted on  the  subject,  and  expressed  his  opinion  that  such 
a  view  was  not  inconsistent  with  the  creed  of  the  church. 
Several  theologians  of  the  east  coincided  with  him. 
Cyrus  patriarch  of  Alexandria  accepted  the  doctrine,  and 
made  some  progress  in  reconciling  the  two  |)artie8  within 
his  diocese.  Action  to  that  effect  was  taken  by  a  council 
in  Alexandria,  in  633.  But  Sophronius,  a  clearer  think- 
ing Palestinian  monk,  happened  to  be  there  at  the  time, 
and  declared  his  opposition.  He  became  patriarch  of 
Jerusalem  next  year,  and  used  his  increased  influence 
to  promote  the  rising  excitement  of  controvers3^  Sergius 
of  Constantinople  succeeded  in  enlisting  Honorius,  bishop 
of  Rome,  on  his  side.  Thus  the  Patriarchs  of  Constan- 
tinople, of  Rome  and  of  Alexandria  were  arrayed  on  the 
Monothelite  side,  against  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem. 
Sophronius  however  had  the  advantage  of  his  opponents 
in  point  of  logic,  and  his  "reasoning  soon  convinced  the 
greater  number  of  theologians.  But  he  was  silenced  by 
the  Mohammedans,  into  whose  hands  he  and  his  patri- 
archate fell  in  637.  He  died  soon  after.  Next  year,  the 
emperor  finding  that  instead  of  harmony,  only  greater 
division  of  opinion  was  produced  by  his  doctrine,  issued 


91 

what  he  called  the  Ecthesis^  prepared  by  Sergius,  with 
the  hope  of  allaying  the  exciteraeiit.  In  that  proclama- 
tion he  stated  the  doctrine  of  one  Christ  in  two  natures, 
and  that  the  one  Christ  works  both  what  is  divine  and 
what  is  human  ;  but  urged  that  the  phrases  expressive  of 
one  energy  or  of  two  energies,  which  had  been  used  in 
controversy,  should  be  avoided.  Both  parties-  were  dis- 
satisfied. Succeeding  bishops  of  Rome  rejected  the 
JEdhesis,  and  in  the  east  orthodoxy  was  abl}"  defended  by 
the  monk  Maximus,  while  Theodore  bishop  of  Pharan 
in  Arabia  upheld  tlie  cause  of  the  Monothelites.  In  648 
the  emperor  Constans  II.  issued  an  edict  called  the  Tj'pus, 
{tuttui;)  by  which  the  Ectliesis  was  revoked,  and  without 
taking  the  part  of  either  side,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
restrain  violent  disputes,  and  effect  peace  in  the  church. 
Of  course  it  did  not  succeed.  Pope  Martin  I.  called  a 
council  in  Rome,  the  first  Lateran,  the  next  year,  at 
which  twenty  canons  were  drawn  up  condemning  Mono- 
thelitism,  thereby  putting  himself  in  opposition  to  the 
imperial  policy.  For  that  he  wa^,  .in  653,  arrested, 
deposed,  and  taken  to  Constantinople,  on  charge  of  high 
treason.  He  was  banished,  654,  to  Chersonesus  in  the 
Crimea,  where  he  soon  afterwards  died. 

Maximus  met  with  a  similar,  but  severer  fate.  His 
trial  effecting  no  disposition  in  him  to  comply  with  the 
imperial  edict,  he  was  imprisoned  several  j^ears,  then 
publicly  scourged,  his  tongue  cut  out,  and  his  right  hand 
cut  ott";  after  which  he  was  banished  to  the  country  of 
the  Lazians,  where  he  died,  in  662. 

As  another  means  of  reconcilino-  the  lono;  standing 
dispute,  the  emperor  Constantine  IV.  called  a  general 
council  to  meet  at  Constantinople,  in  680.  It  assembled 
in  a  hall  of  the  palace  called  Trullus.  The  emperor  pre- 
sided. The  doctrine  of  two  wills  was  accepted  as  script- 
ural; that  is,  that  in  Christ  there  are  two  natures  in  one 
person;  each  nature  possessing  a  will  of  its  own ;  and 
the  Monothelite  doctrine  of  two  natures  in  one  person, 
with  only  one  will,  was  condemned. 

Under  the  emperor  Philippicus  Bardanes,  711 — 713 
the  controversy  was  revived,  in  the  east,  but  for  only  a 
short  time.  Monothelites  diminished  in  number,  and 
ultimately  became   limited   to   a  small   dissenting  party 


92 

who  residins^  chiefly  in  the  reijion  of  Lebanon,  chose  a 
patriarch  of  Antioch  for  themselves.  Their  remnant 
still  survives  under  the  name  of  Maronites. 

It  was  probabl}'  during  the  seventh  century  that  the 
Symbolum  Quicnmque,  erroneously  called  the  Athana- 
sian  Creed  was  framed,  taking  its  origin  in  Spain.  It  is 
the  third  of  the  old  Catholic  Symbols,  the  Apostles' 
Creed  and  the  Xiceno-Constantinopolitan  being  the  first 
and  second. 

In  outward  progress  of  the  church  the  most  impor- 
tant steps  were  those  of  mission  work  in  the  British  isles. 

Augustine  with  Laurentius  and  other  Benedictine 
monks,  sent  by  Gregory  I.  to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  landed 
on  the  coast  of  Kent  in  597.  Their  success  proved  to  be 
great  beyond  expectation.  The  king  of  Kent  soon  pro- 
fessed himself  a  christian,  and  was  followed  by  his  peo- 
ple, ten  thousand  of  whom  were  baptized  in  one  day. 
Canterbury  was  constituted  an  archbishopric,  and  Augus- 
tine its  first  incumbent,  in  604.  At  the  end  of  five  years, 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  companion  Laurentius  ;  and  the 
work  went  on  prosperously. 

The  latter  years  of  the  sixth  century  and  the  seventh 
were  marked  by  great  missionary  zeal  on  the  part  of 
British  christians  of  the  older  connection.  The  church 
in  the  south  of  Scotland  was  early  cut  otf  from  Rome, 
by  the  withdrawal  of  Roman  troops  further  south,  long 
before  they  w^ere  entirely  removed  from  the  island.  Sub- 
sequent interposition  of  heathen  Saxons  increased  that 
isolation.  About  the  year  430,  the  gospel  was  carried 
from  the  south  of  Scotland  into  the  north  of  Ireland  by 
Patricius.  Others  had  preceded  him,  yet  so  far  superior 
was  the  success  which  attended  the  preaching  of  Patri- 
cius, that  Ireland  refers  the  planting  of  her  church  entireh' 
to  him.  It  was  in  the  counties  Down  and  Armagh  that  he 
commenced  his  labors,  which  soon  extended  to  all  the 
north,  and  thence,  by  the  hands  of  others  the  gospel  was 
carried  to  the  rest  of  the  island.  Armagh  was  subse- 
quently constituted  the  seat  of  primacy  for  Ireland. 

From  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  the  Irish 
clergy  were  distinguished  for  learning  superior  to  the  age 
in  other  quarters,  and  for  missionary  zeal.  Their  princi- 
pal school  and  centre   of  operations  w^as  Bangor,  in  the 


93 

county  Down.  About  563,  Cokimba  left  Ireland  to  carry 
the  gospel  into  the  northwest  of  Scotland,  where  it  had 
not  then  been  preached.  With  his  companions  he  was 
favorably  received  by  a  chief  of  the  Hebrides,  who  gave 
him  the  island  of  lona.  There  he  erected  a  church,  and 
a  house  for  himself  and  his  missionaries,  who  from  that 
centre  extended  their  excursions  to  various  parts  of  the 
mainland  and  neighboring  islands.  In  635,  Oswald  king 
of  IS^orthumbria,  obtained  a  missionary  from  lona  to 
preach  within  his  dominions,  and  gave  him  for  residence 
the  island  of  Lindisfarne.  The  success  of  that  mission 
was  rapid,  and  churches  were  soon  planted  as  f.xr  south 
as  Yorkshire  and  even  in  the  centre  of  England.  At 
the  same  time  tlie  I^omish  missions  from  the  south  were 
rapidly  advancing  northward.  In  the  conflict  of  authori- 
ties which  ensued,  the  power  of  lona  could  not  withstand 
that  from  Rome.  The  churches  of  the  northern  mission 
were,  before  the  end  of  the  seventh  century,  compre- 
hended within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  southern.  Lindis- 
farne became  a  Romish  monastery,  and  its  episcopal 
authority  was  transferred  to  Durham.  York  was  the 
seat  of  an  archbishopric ;  but  Canterbury  was  lionored 
with  the  primacy  of  all  England.  Articles  enforcing 
obedience  of  the  churches  in  the  north  of  England  to  the 
Romish  practices  were  proposed  by  Theodore  of  Canter- 
bury in  a  provincial  council  for  the  north,  in  674. 

It  was  also  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventh  century 
that  Columbanus  and  Gallus  left  Ireland  at  the  head  of 
another  little  group  of  missionaries  to  preach  in  Bur- 
gundy, France  and  Switzerland.  Columbanus  died  in 
615  and  Gallus  in  627. 

V.     752—880. 

Resettlement.      Early  Papal  Success.      Organization 
OF  THE  National  Churches  of  the  West. 

Leagued  with  the  great  Carolingian  kings  of  France, 
the  Papacy  now  entered  upon  the  first  period  of  its  real 
supremacy  in  the  west.  That  period  extends  from  the 
pontificate  of  Stephen  II.,  until  880,  the  date  of  the  dif- 
ference, which  was  never  reconciled,  between  the  Pope 
and  the  Patriarch,  and  the  beginning  of  the  medieval  de- 


94 

cline  of  tlie  Papacy.  Another  feature  of  the  time  was 
the  settlement  of  the  new  nations,  the  chief  work  of 
Charlemagne,  who  also  forced  npon  his  heathen  suhjccts 
the  profession  of  Christianity,  by  having  them  baptized. 

It  was  witliin  the  same  period  that  the  Iconoclast  con- 
troversy ran  the  most  exciting  part  of  its  course.  By 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  the  worship  of  im- 
ages had  become  common  throughout  the  church  both 
east  and  west.  Opposition  to  it  was  the  strong  point  of 
Mohammedanism,  A  few  intelligent  christians  also  per- 
ceived its  unchristian  character;  but  the  greater  number 
were  devotedly  attached  to  their  images.  In  726,  the 
emperor,  Leo  Isauricus  issued  an  edict  forbidding  the 
practice;  and  in  730  he  ordered  the  images  or  pictures 
to  be  destroyed.  The  opposition  of  German  us,  patriarch 
of  Constantino})le,  was  overcome  by  deposing  him,  and 
setting  up  Anastasius.  Rome  defended  the  worship  of 
images.  And  Catholic  christians  under  Mohammedan 
rule  adhered  to  the  practice  as  a  distinctive  badge  of  their 
religion. 

The  course  of  the  Emperor  Leo  was  also  pursued  by 
his  successor  Constantine,  in  whose  reign  the  council  of 
754,  at  Constantinople,  condemned  the  worship  of  im- 
ages, but  not  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Cathofic  public, 
nor  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  who  did  not  recognize  the 
council.  A  new  stage  of  the  controversy  opened,  the  im- 
perial authorit}-  being  generally  arraj-ed  against  images, 
and  the  popes  in  favor  of  them,  until  in  the  minority  of 
the  Emperor  Constantine  VI.,  his  mother  Irene  became, 
in  780,  empress  regent,  and  sustained  the  cause  of  the 
image-worshipers.  Irene  called  a  general  council  to 
meet  at  Nice,  in  787,  which,  witli  her  support,  declared 
image-worship  to  be  orthodox,  and  defined  and  prescribed 
the  practice.  That  council  is  accepted  by  both  east  and 
west  Catholic  churches,  and  remains  their  authority  on 
the  subject. 

The  controversy  was  opened  a  third  time  by  the  Em- 
peror Leo  V.  who,  in  813,  called  a  council  at  Constanti- 
nople, in  which  image-worship  was  condemned.  But 
finally,  when  another  empress  came  into  power,  namely 
Theodora,  a  fourth  council,  convoked  at  Constantinople, 
in  842,  sustained   the   image-worshipers,  confirming  tlie 


95 

second  council  ofNice.  And  the  controversy'  closed  with 
a  grand  festival  in  honor  of  that  decision,  which  was 
called  the  festival  of  orthodoxy. 

In  the  west,  during  part  of  the  eighth  century,  sonne 
controversy  was  created  by  the  opinions  of  two  Spanish 
bishops,  Elipand  of  Toledo,  and  Felix  of  Urgel,  that 
Christ  in  his  divine  nature  was  the  true  Son  of  God,  but 
as  a  man,  only  the  adopted  son.  The  opinion  was  re- 
jected as  heretical  by  the  council  at  Frankfort  in  794. 

Transubstantiation  of  the  elements  in  the  Eucharist 
was  first  formally  taught  and  defended  by  Paschasius 
Radbert,  abbot  of  Corbey,  from  844  to  851.  Though 
practically  held  by  ver}-  many  in  the  church,  from  earlier 
time,  it  encountered  strong  opposition,  when  first  pro- 
posed as  a  dogma,  and  was  not  accepted  authoritatively, 
nor  was  the  term  transubstantiation  introduced,  until 
long  afterwards.  Rabanus  Maurus,  John  Scot  Erigena 
and  Ratramnus,  the  ablest  theologians  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, all  wrote  against  it. 

Controversy  was  revived  on  the  subject  of  predesti- 
nation b}'  the  writings  of  Gottschalk,  a  monk  of  Fulda, 
who  from  about  840  taught  that  there  is  a  two-fold  pre- 
destination of  the  elect  to  blessedness,  and  of  the  rest  of 
mankind  to  punishment.  He  was  opposed  by  Rabanus 
Maurus,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  and  Hincmar,  Archbishop 
of  Rheims.  After  year.«  of  controversy,  Gottschalk  was 
condemned  to  imprisonment,  in  which  he  died,  in  868. 

A  controversy  concerning  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  had  more  immediate  etfect  upon  the  history  of  the 
church.  The  cre6d  of  the  general  councils  states  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father.  A  conviction, 
which  appeared  first  in  Spain,  in  the  acts  of  a  council  at 
Toledo,  in  589,  and  again  in  other  Spanish  councils  of  the 
seventh  century,  that  He  proceeds  from  both  the  Father 
and  the  Son,  was,  sometime  in  the  early  part  of  the  ninth 
century,  introduced  into  the  Latin  version  of  the  Creed. 
The  proposal  to  insert  it  in  the  original  Greek  was  re- 
jected by  the  council  of  Constantinople  in  879.  On  the 
subject  of  Jilioque,  the  eastern  and  western  Catholic  church 
established  a  permanent  difference  of  opinion. 

In  Armenia,  Parsism  became  blended  with  Christian- 
ity, giving  rise   to  that  sect  called  by  other  Christians 


96 

"  The  children  of  the  sun."  "  On  the  other  liaiid  a  class 
of  reformers  arose  in  the  east,  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century,  who  sought  to  conform  closely  to  the 
teachings  of  the  apostles,  especially  of  John  and  Paul. 
From  the  frequent  use  among  them  of  the  name  and 
writings  of  the  last  mentioned,  it  is  thought,  they  re- 
ceived the  name  Paulicians,  by  which  they  are  known. 
Their  leaders,  in  many  cases,  assumed  the  names  of  per- 
sons connected  with  Paul  in  his  labors.  They  suffered 
ranch  persecution.  Constantine,  who  took  the  name 
Silvanus,  an  eminent  teacher  among  them,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Samosata,  between  657  and  684,  was  stoned  to 
death  by  order  of  the  em})eror  Constantine  IV.  But  tlie 
officer  who  executed  the  order  became  a  convert  to  the 
cause,  and  a  preacher  of  it  under  the  name  of  Titus,  and 
died  at  the  stake  under  Justinian  II.  The  Paulicians 
were  opposed  to  image-worsliip,  and  for  that  reason  were 
protected  by  the  emperor  Leo  Isauricus.  Through  the 
latter  part  of  tlie  eight  century  and  until  811,  they  in- 
creased in  number,  and  spread  their  churches  over  Asia 
Minor,  From  811,  persecution  was  revived  and  con- 
tinued many  years,  especially  under  the  rule  of  the  zeal- 
ous image-worshiper  Theodora,  from  841  to  8'')5,  wMio 
with  a  fanatical  fury  resolved  to  extirpate  them.  ]^ot 
less  than  a  hundred  thousand  of  them  are  said  to  have 
been  slain  in  Armenia  by  her  officers.  Many  of  them  fled 
for  refuge  to  the  Saracens,  and  tirfding  protection  added 
their  force  to  the  enemies  of  the  empire.  But  notwith- 
standing persecution,  their  converts  also  increased  to  the 
westward, and  Paulician  churches  were  founded  in  Thrace 
and  Bulgaria,  and  thence,  at  a  later  date,  their  doctrines 
spread  uiider  various  names,  into  the  west  of  Europe. 

The  last  years  of  the  eighth  century,  and  earlier  part 
of  the  ninth,  were  marked  by  a  highly  laudable  effort  at 
reform  and  restoration  of  learning,  made  by  both  Chris- 
tian and  Mohammedan  princes. 

Among  the  Saracens,  it  was  the  time  of  the  great 
Abbasside  Kalifs  of  Bagdad,  a  dynasty  elevated  in  750, 
at  Damascus,  by  the  cruel  success  of  Abul  Abbas,  called 
Al  Safiab,  Their  seat  of  government  was  subsequently- 
removed  to  Hashemiah,  and  in  762  to  Bagdad,  Al  Man- 
sur   and    Al    Mahadi    successively    reigned    after   Abul 


97 

Abbas  until  785,  when  it  readied  its  highest  excellence 
under  Harun  A)  Raschid.  Upon  his  death  in  808,  his 
sons  Al  Amin  and  Al  Mamun  reigned  successively  until 
833.  From  that  date  Bagdad  began  to  decline,  and  suc- 
ceeding barbaric  invasions  rendered  decline  irretrieva- 
ble. 

In  Spain  the  Moors  within  this  period  began  their 
career  of  civilization,  which  they  continued  until  the  rise 
of  modern  learning. 

In  the  Greek  empire,  the  state  of  culture  was  little 
improved  ;  but  one  or  two  authors  flourished  there  greatly 
superior  to  any  of  the  foregoing  period. 

In  the  west  of  Christian  Europe,  the  effort  towards 
restoration  of  learning  and  of  ecclesiastical  order  was 
earnestly  made,  by  those  at  the  head  of  the  civil  govern- 
ment, Pepin,  Charlemagne,  and  Louis,  from  751  to  840. 
For  the  time  then  being,  their  success  was  not  equal  to 
that  of  tlie  Mohammedan  princes;  but  the  seeds  they 
planted  bore  more  abundant  fruit,  in  a  far  distant  future. 
The  sons  of  Louis  divided  their  father's  dominion,  and 
enfeebled  their  resources  ;  but  they  also  patronized  let- 
ters in  some  degree.  With  the  deatli  of  Charles  the  bald 
in  877,  such  patronage  ceased  in  that  quarter.  But  almost 
at  the  same  time  commenced  the  reign  of  Alfred  the 
Great  in  England,  extending  from  871  until  900. 

With  all  the  encouragement  of  Charlemagne,  the 
improvement  in  learning  was'  very  slender.  Few  cared 
to  study,  and  the  course  of  instruction  even  in  the  im- 
proved schools  was  scanty.  The  topics  of  the  Trkium. 
and  Quadrwium  were  briefly  and  superficially  treated. 
The  Scholars  who  illustrate  the  time  were  Alcuinus, 
Eginhard,  Rabanus  Maurus,  Ilincmar,  Ratramims,  John 
Scot  Erigena,  and  Claudius  of  Turin.  Among  the 
Greeks  the  principal  name  is  that  of  Photius. 

For  tliirty  years  Charlemage  made  war  on  various, 
nations  of  Saxons,  the  Bohemians  and  Huns,  whom  he 
subdued,  and  constrained  to  profess  Christianitv,  He 
also  invaded  the  Mohammedans  of  Spain,  and"'  drove 
tliem  from  that  part  of  the  peninsula  north  of  the  Ebro. 
In  772  he  went  into  Italy  to  protect  the  Pope  from  the 
Lombards,  and  before  the  end  of  two  years,  put  an  end 
to   the   Lombard   kingdom.     And   in    786,  the   duke  of 


98 

Benevento  submitted  to  hold  his  duchy  as  a  fief  of 
Cliarleniagne.  The  kingdom  thus  built  up,  before  the 
end  of  the  eiglith  century,  extended  from  the  Ebro  and 
aoutli  of  Italy  to  the  Elbe  and  Eider  in  the  north,  and 
from  the  Atlantic  to  Panonia,  a  great  part  of  which  it 
included,  and  the  valley  of  the  Theis  in  Hungar}-. 

Pope  Leo  III,  seeing  all  this,  determined  to  break  off 
the  last  show  of  allegiance  to  Constantinople,  and  con- 
nect his  office,  on  different  terms,  with  the  new  monarcli}' 
of  the  west,  by  reviving  the  western  empire.  On  the 
25th  of  December,  800,  Charlemagne  was  at  Rome  in 
the  church  of  St.  Peter.  When  kneeling  at  the  altar, 
he  was  approached  solemnly  by  the  Pope,  who  placed  on 
his  head  a  golden  crown,  and  pronounced  him  emperor 
of  Rome  :  and  from  the  vast  congregation  burst  forth 
the  exclamation,  "  Life  and  victory  to  Charles,  crowned 
by  God  emperor  of  Rome." 

There  wa^  now  again  an  emperor  of  the  west,  and 
Rome  and  the  Papacy  were  finally  scDarated  from  the 
emperors  of  the  east,  and  from  the  Byzantine  system. 
This  is  the  point  at  which  the  popes  became  legally  inde- 
pendent. For  ecclesiastical  supremacy  was  never  recog- 
nized as  belonging  to  the  new  imperial  line  of  the  west. 
The  idea  of  being  free  from  civil  allegiance,  however, 
did  not  at  first  occur  to  the  successors  of  Leo  III.  But 
not  quite  half  a  century  had  elapsed  ere  that  also  was 
claimed.  Eugenius  II.,  in  824  took  an  oath  of  alle- 
giance; but  Sergius  IL,  in  844  ventured  to  neglect  it, 
advantage  being  taken  of  the  divided  state  of  the  secular 
power.  And  in  847  Leo  IV.  was  not  only  ordained  witli- 
ont  imperial  sanction,  but  also  assumed  precedence  of 
princes  in  putting  his  name  to  documents.  An  attempt 
was  made  by  Nicholas  I.  in  858  to  impose  papal  superior- 
ity upon  Constantinople.  The  emperor  Michael  III. 
having  removed  the  patriarch  Ignatius,  and  appointed 
Photius  in  his  stead,  Ignatius  applied  to  the  pope,  who 
having  first  in  vain  demanded  the  restoration  of  the  eccle 
siastical  jurisdiction  of  Illyricum,  Macedonia,  Epirus, 
Thessaly,  Achaia,  and  Sicilj',  with  the  addition  of  Bul- 
garia, took  revenge  by  excommunicating  Photius.  Pho- 
tius retaliated  by  excommunicatijig  Nicholas.  Ignatius 
was  restored  by  the   succeeding  emperor  Basilius,  867, 


99 

but  neither  of  them  complied  witli  the  pope's  demand. 
A  general  council  at  Constantinople  in  869,  condemned 
Photius.  After  the  death  of  Ignatius  in  878,  Photius 
was  restored.  And  another  council  at  Constantinople 
in  879,  labored  to  reconcile  the  two  hierarchs,  but  without 
effect.  Because  among  other  things  it  could  not  recognize 
Rome  as  the  last  court  of  appeal,  nor  assent  to  the  western 
doctrine  of  the  procession  of  tiie  Holy  Spirit,  nor  to  the 
claim  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  over  Bulgaria  and 
other  provinces  above  named.  Consequently  the  council 
of  879  was  anathematized  by  pope  John  VIII.,  in  880. 
The  bishops  of  tlie  east  and  west  never  again  met  in  a 
general  council  of  both  churches.  For  the  eastern 
Catholic  church  recognizes  no  council  as  general  since 
that  of  879. 

With  the  reign  of  Cliarlemagne  begins  the  true  set- 
tlement of  tlie  nations  of  western  Europe,  and  the  period 
of  dissolution  comes  to  an  end. 

In  the  constitution  of  his  empire,  Charlemagne  had 
special  regard  to  tlie  interests  of  the  churcli.  And  that 
of  Rome  was  tlie  model  which  he  endeavored  to  follow; 
but  without  recognizing  its  supremacy.  The  highest 
authority  in  aflairs  of  government  was  retained  for  the 
monarch,  who  summoned  ecclesiastical  fs  well  as  civil 
as.-emblies,  and  whose  sanction  was  needed  to  confirm 
their  decrees.  And  in  the  administration  of  law,  bishops 
and  counts  were  associated,  and  instructed  to  support 
each  other.  Neither  Pepin  nor  Charlemagne,  though 
paying  great  honor  to  popes,  ever  allowed  them  any  other 
influence  in  affairs  of  state  than  that  of  advice  or  remon- 
strance. Thus,  the  Gallican  churcli  obtained,  in  its 
reconstruction  under  those  great  princes,  a  degree  of  free- 
dom from  papal  domination,  which  no  other  western 
church  could  claim. 

In  the  reign  of  Louis,  papal  influence  was  suffered  to 
increase,  and  every  advantage  was  taken,  by  the  popes, 
of  the  division  and  enfeebling  ef  the  empire  by  his  sons. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  church  of  Britain  was  most  faith- 
fully attached  to  Rome.  It  had  no  antiquity  of  greater 
purity  to  regret.  In  Spain,  christians  living  under  Moor- 
ish rule  were  allowed  the  privileges  of  worship,  and  of 
internal  church  government  and  discipline,  but  suftered 


100 

in  mail}'  ways  from  tlie  Mobamniedan  populace.  Gothic 
Spaniards  were  independent,  and  almost  continually  at 
war  witli  the  Moors. 

Mission  work  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  north  of 
Europe,  That  of  Anschar,  commenced  in  826,  carried 
Christianity  into  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  archbishopric  of  Hamburg-Bremen, 
which  was  constituted  in  831.  And  what  Anschar  and 
his  companions  were  to  the  northwest  of  Europ<i,  Cyril 
and  Methodius  were  to  the  northeast.  Through  their 
efforts,  the  Moravians  were  added  to  the  eastern  church, 
about  the  year  862,  the  Bulgarians  about  864;  and  in 
subsequent  years  tlie  same  labors  were  extended  to  the 
Chazars,  a  people  living  to  the  north  of  tlie  Black  sea. 
From  Moravia  the  cause  was  carried,  in  871,  into  Bo- 
hemia. 

The  discipline  of  the  church  had  undergone  achange. 
Private  confession  was  now  completely  established ;  and 
the  priest  was  empowered  to  grant  absolution  under  con- 
dition of  a  penance  to  be  performed.  Excommunication 
was  not  often  inflicted,  but  from  tlie  civil  forfeitures,  and 
the  social  exclusion  connected  with  it,  had  become  greatly 
intensified  in  its  terrors. 

Superstitious  rites  and  observances  were  greatly  mul- 
tiplied. Saints  and  their  relics  inci^eased  on  all  hands, 
and  legends  of  their  virtues  and  miracles,  manufactured 
chiefly  in  the  east  and  at  Rome,  were  greedily  accepted 
by  an  ignorant  public  everywhere.  The  festival  of  All 
, Saints  gradually  grew  into  use  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries,  and  in  the  ninth,  was  regularlj^  appointed  by 
Gregory  IV.,  for  the  first  of  November.  A  festival  was 
introduced  in  honor  of  the  birth  of  the  Virgin  Mary  on 
the  8th  of  September,  and  for  her  ascension,  on  the  15th 
of  August.  For  it  had  now  been  decided  that  Mary  was 
taken  up  bodily  to  heaven.  Certain  writings  were  pre- 
sented by  the  eastern  emperor  Michael  II.  to  the  western 
emperor  Louis  the  pious,  as  the  works  of  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite.  The  French  scholars  and  people,  taking  the 
pretended  author  to  be  the  founder  of  their  church, 
accepted  Dionysius  as  their  patron  saint.  Within  the 
same  period  the  christian  Spaniards  discovered  among 
them    the   wonderfully   preserved    body  of  the    apostle 


101 

James  the  brother  of  our  Lord,  which  forthwith  became 
their  Palladium  in  war  with  the  Moors.  But  every 
conntr}',  almost  every  fam.ily,  had  its  patron  saint,  embel- 
ished  with  his,  or  her,  miracles. 

In  the  growth  of  the  papacy  in  the  ninth  century 
above  all  that  it  had  previously  been,  attempts  were  made 
to  fortify  the  ground  taken,  and  construct  the  weapons 
for  conquering  more  by  the  fabrication  of  certain  authori- 
ties. Certain  canons  of  councils  unheard  of  before,  and 
forged  epistles  of  early  popes  were  inserted  into  the  col- 
lection of  ecclesiastical  laws,  which  went  under  the  name 
of  Isidore  of  Seville.  The}-  were  of  a  nature,  if  enforced, 
to  make  the  clergy  independent  of  the  state,  with  the 
Roman  see  the  centre  of  their  system.  They  were  used 
as  law  from  the  time  of  Pope  Nicholas  I.  or  about  860, 
until  their  exposure  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Another 
similar  forgery,  which  came  into  operation  within  the 
same  period,  was  the  pretended  donation  of  Constan- 
tine,  whereby  the  Papacy  endeavored  to  sustain  its 
assumption  of  a  rank  above  all  civil  potentates  and  pow- 
ers. This  also  continued  to  be  adduced  as  legal  authority 
until  exposed  hx  moderm  criticism. 

Amidst  accumulating  errors  and  corruptions  there 
were  still  numerous  examples  of  pastoral  iidelity  and  of 
true  christian  life  among  both  clergy  and  \ix\ty.  Ago- 
bard,  bishop  of  Lyons,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  the  pious, 
finding  the  worship  of  his  church  debased  by  the  super- 
stition and  ignorance  of  his  predecessors,  upon  his  own 
judgment,  removed  from  it  everything  inconsistent  with 
scriptural  doctrine,  and  confined  himself  as  much  as  por- 
sible  to  scriptural  forms  of  expression.  A  still  bolder 
reformer,  in  the  spirit  of  Christ,  was  Claudius  bishop 
of  Turin,  who  contended  earnestly  for  the  simplicity  of 
Christian  faith,  in  opposition  to  the  sensuous  and  idola- 
trous practices  of  the  age.  He  exerted  an  influence  upon 
the  church  of  Turin  which  honorably  distinguished  it 
long  afterwards. 

VI.     880—1054. 

Papal  Degeneracy. 

In  the  pontificate  of  John  VIII.  the  Papacy  had 
reached  the  prime  of  its  early  success,  having  succeeded 


,        102 

in  gathering  together  in  itself  all  the  elements  of  Roman- 
ism. By  the  same  time  a  long  succession  of  emperors 
and  patriarchs  in  Constantinople  had  matured  the  system 
of  Byzantinism.  It  was  impossible  that  they  could  live 
together  in  harmony,  diametrically  opposite  as  they  were 
to  each  other.  Some  of  the  points*  on  which  the  Pope 
and  Patriarch  differed  in  879  and  880,  were  such  as  could 
not  be  compromised.  Still,  they  continued  for  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-four  years,  to  hold  relations  to  each 
other  as  ministers  in  the  same  Catholic  church,  althougii 
in  a  state  of  bitter  rivalry,  until  in  the  year  1054,  they 
separated  entirely,  rending  the  Catholic  church  in  two. 
The  intervening  period  is  the  lowest  in  the  history  of 
civilized  Europe.  It  is  marked  by  papal  degeneracy; 
by  the  decline  of  the  western  empire,  and  its  revival  as 
German,  and  by  the  darkest  shades  of  popular  ignorance. 

1.  Louis  the  pious  having  divided  the  empire  among 
his  three  sons,  died  in  840.  His  sons  immediately  rushed 
into  war  witli  each  other,  and  made  a  new  division,  by 
the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843,  whereby  the  general  out- 
lines of  France  and  Germany  were  assigned.  But  be- 
tween these  two  countries  there  was  left  a  belt  of  terri- 
tory, which  united  to  the  Netherlands  on  the  north,  and 
Italy  on  the  south  was  given  to  Lothaire  with  the  title  of 
emperor.  Germany  was  assigned  to  Louis  the  German, 
and  France,  to  Charles  the  bald.  In  875,  the  whole,  with 
the  imperial  title,  came  into  the  hands  of  Charles  the 
bald.  From  his  death  in  877,  the  Carolingian  dynasty 
,  broke  downi.  The  German  branch  of  it  became  extinct 
in  912.  Conrad  of  Franconia  was  elected  emperor,  but 
died  in  918.  The  next  was  Henry  the  Fowler  of  Saxony. 
From  his  accession  in  919,  the  western  empire,  as  a 
German  power,  entered  a  new  career  of  prosperity,  in 
which  it  was  carried  forward  chiefly  by  Otho  I.,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Henry,  from  936  to  973.  In  1024,  it  passed 
again  into  the  house  of  Franconia,  beginning  with  Con- 
rad II.,  followed  successively  by  Henry  III.,  and  Henry 
IV.  The  last  commenced  his  eventful  reign,  as  a  child 
of  six  years  old,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother, 
in  1056. 

The  Saracens  from  Africa,  after  having  conquered 
Sicily  and  Naples,  were,  in  877,  threatening  Rome,  when 


103 

the  death  of  Charles  the  Bald  deprived  the  Pope  of  his 
strongest  protector.     None  of  the  other  princes  were  in 
condition   to  help   him.     He   bought  the   safety  of  his 
capital  bj  promise  of  tribute  :  and  then  found  himself  in 
the  hands  of  refractory  Italian  princes.     He  took  refuge 
in  France  in  878.     John  YHI— died  in  882,  and  was  fol- 
lowed, for  nearly  a  hundred  and  seventy  years,  by  a  series 
of  popes,  of  whom,  with  only  one   or  two  exceptions:  it 
is  fair  to  say  that  whatever  their  abilities  might  be,  they 
were  less  conspicuous  than  their  vices.     Thepapal  office 
became  an  object  of  political  ambition,  to  which  the  elec- 
tions were  managed  by  parties  among  the  Italian  nobles. 
From  about  898,"if  not  earlier,  the  principal  i)ower  was 
wielded  by  certain  infamous  women  of  high  rank,  and  by 
their  descendants  and  kindred  for  a  hundred  years.     A 
brief  interval  occurred  in  the  pontificate  of  Gerbert  (Sil- 
vester II.,)  a  good   man,  and  the  only  good  scholar  the 
age  could  boa^t,  and  whom  it  could  not  understand.  But 
his  term  of  office,   from    999  to  1003,   was   too  brief  to 
apply  any  important  check  to  the  downward  career  of 
papal  his^tory.     In  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century 
Rome  both  "ecclesiastical  and  civil,  was  under  the  domi- 
nation of  the  noble  house  of  Tusculum,  a  branch  of  the 
flagitious  stock  to  whom  it  had  been  subject  in  the  tenth 
century.     So  low  had   the  papacy  descended,  that  men 
were  put  into  it   without  the  pretence  of  being  clergy- 
men.     John    XIX,    a    layman    and   a    brother  of    the 
count    of  Tusculum,   was    carried    to  the   Papal  chair, 
in  1024,  if  not  by  purchase,  at  least  by  the  political  man- 
agement of  his  family.     He  was  succeeded  in  1033,  by 
his  nephew,  Benedict  IX.,  also  a  layman,  for  whom  the 
papal  office  had  been  purchased  when  he  was  but  a  boy 
of  ten   years.     The  dissolute  life  of  Benedict  matched 
the  scandalous  manner  of  his  election.     Rome  endured 
him  ten  years,  and  then  in  1044,  drove  him  from  the  city, 
and  set  up  Sylvester   III.     In   the   course   of  the  strife 
which  ensued,  Tusculum    prevailed  and  restored  Bene- 
dict.    Sylvester  under  excommunication  betook  himself 
to   flight.     But   the  violence  of  parties  did   not  cease. 
Benedict  concluded  to  sell  his  office.     It  was  purchased 
in  1046  by  John   Gratian,  a  priest,  who  took  the  papal 
name  of  Gregory  VI.     Subsequently  Benedict  changed 


104 

his  mind,  his  party  again  rallied  round  him,  and  en- 
throned him  once  more  in  tlie  Lateran  pahice.  One  of 
his  rivals,  Gregory,  held  his  place  in  the  Cathedral  of  St, 
Maria  Maggiore,  while  the  other,  Sj'lvester,  retained  St. 
Peter's  and  the  Vatican,  The  streets  of  Rome  were  ijar- 
assed  by  the  deadly  strife  of  their  partisans. 

News  moved  slowly  in  those  days,  and  the  stolidity 
of  ignorant  superstition  took  long  time  to  acccept  the 
conviction  of  an^^thing  wrong  in  the  papal  court.  But 
it  was  now  impossible  that  the  christian  public  could  be 
ignorant  of  such  a  scandalous  schism.  It  would  not  have 
been  well  ior  the  church,  or  the  world  to  have  seen  the 
papacy  submerged  in  sucli  a  way  and  at  such  a  juncture. 
The  emperor  Henry  IIL,  came  from  Germany  to  restore 
order,  and  advanced  to  iSutri,  where  he  called  a  council. 
All  three  popes  were  cited  to  appear,  Benedict  abdi- 
cated, the  other  two  were  deposed  ;  and  a  new  pope  was 
elected  from  the  German  clergy,  who  took  the  name  of 
Clement  II,  Henry  tlien  marched  to  Rome  and  inducted 
his  pope  into  the  papal  throne,  with  the  apparent  consent 
of  the  Roman  clergy,  and  received,  for  liimself  and  his 
queen,  imperial  coronation  at  his  liands. 

But  it  was  not  the  emperor  who  Was  to  be  the 
reformer  of  the  papacy.  Clement's  attempt  to  reduce  the 
irregularities  of  bishops  and  other  clergy  utterly  failed  ; 
his  council  called  at  Rome  could  accomplish  notliing, 
from  the  gigantic  extent  of  the  evils.  His  pontilicate 
was  brief.  He  died  within  a  ye;ir.  Benedict  IX  took 
occasion  of  the  absence  of  any  higher  authority  to  renew 
Tiis  usurpation  once  more,  and  maintained  it  nine  months, 
A  new  party  in  favor  of  imperial  interference,  united  in 
an  application  to  the  emperor  to  nominate  a  pope  accord- 
ing to  his  own  judgment.  He  sent  them  Poppo,  bishop 
of  Brescia,  who  reigned  as  Damasus  II,,  only  twenty- 
three  days.  Again  the  vacant  chair  awaited  the  em- 
peror's nomination.  He  appointed  his  kinsman  Bruno, 
bishop  of  Toul,  a  man  of  learning  and  humble  piety.  At 
a  great  assembly  at  Worms,  in  presence  of  the  delegates 
from  Rome,  the  emperor  had  Ijim  invested  with  the 
badges  of  Pontifical  office.  Thus  the  Papacy,  through 
necessities  imposed  by  its  own  corruptions,  was  coming 
distinct!}'   under   control  of  the  secular  power  ;  and  so 


105 

loosely  had  the  elections  been  latterly  conducted  that  the 
secular  power  was  needed  to  give  them  some  regularity. 

It  was  at  that  juncture  that  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary characters  of  the  middle  ages  appeared.  The 
newly  elected  Pope  was  encountered  at  Besancon,  on  his 
way  to  Italy,  by  a  young  monk  from  Cluny,  who  was 
destined  to  wield  a'^more  than  imperial  influence  over 
him.  Hildebrand  was  a  native  of  Tuscany,  born  about 
1020,  educated  in  Rome,  and  afterwards  in  Cluny,  where 
the  monks  regarded  him  as  a  prodigy  of  gifts,  application 
and  sanctity.  His  education  was  entirely  monastic,  and 
his  ideas  of  papal  reform  were  drawn  from  the  monastery. 
About  the  age  of  twenty-four  he  returned  to  Rome,  at 
the  juncture'when  the  strife  between  rival  popes  was  the 
fiercest,  and  attached  himself  to  Gregory  VI.  When  all 
three  popes  were  deposed,  Hildebrand  followed  Gregory 
into  retirement,  and  after  his  death,  returned  for  a  short 
time  to  Cluny,  He  had  kept  himself  well  informed  of 
the  course  of  events  in  Rome;  and  now  greatly  dissatis- 
fied with  the  act  of  investiture  at  Worms,  he  presented 
himself,  in  company  with  Hugh  Abbot  of  Cluny,  to  the 
Pope  elect  at  Besancon,  and  persuaded  him  to  consider 
his  investiture  by  imperial  authority  null.  Bruno  dis- 
missed his  papal  equipage,  and  in  company  with  Hilde- 
brand, pursued  the  rest  of  his  journey  in  the  manner  of 
a  pilgrim.  At  Rome  he  submitted  to  election  by  the 
clergy,  and  assumed  the  papal  oflice,  as  Leo  IX.,  upon 
purely  ecclesiastical  investiture. 

2.  Bishops  very  generally  disapproved  of  papal  inter- 
meddling with  the  domestic  affairs  of  their  dioceses. 
From  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century,  the  False 
Decretals  operated  to  bring  them  under  that  control. 
Another  means  was  perhaps  not  less  effective.  The 
Popes  had  long  been  in  the  habit  of  conferring  archiepis- 
copal  ofifice  by  giving  the  Pallium,  or  otficial  robe  ;  and 
from  the  time  of  Nicholas  I.,  (858—867)  that  had  been 
given  onl}^  on  condition  of  the  receiver  taking  an  oath  of 
obedience  to  the  Romish  see.  According  to  the  False 
Decretals,  the  Pope  was  universal  bishop.  It  was  by  the 
common  people  that,  in  those  days,  papal  claims  were 
supported.  They,  with  a  superstitious  reverence,  con- 
ceived that  the  Pope  exercised  the  powers  of  divine  law, 


106 

and  were  ready  to  submit  to  hira,  rather  than  to  any  au- 
thority, which  they  deemed  merely  human. 

The  metropolitans,  or  archbishops  of  the  west,  gradu- 
ally brought  under  papal  dominion,  were  also  connected 
in  other  relations  with  the  civil  government.  In  the 
temporalities  of  their  sees,  they  were  involved  in  the 
generally  prevailing  feudal  system,  their  tenants  being 
feudally  dependant  on  them,  and  they  feudally  related  to 
the  monarch.  They  had  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  him,  and  to  receive  from  him  investiture  in  their 
estates  and  civil  honors.  Thus  were  planted  the  seeds 
of  quarrel  between  the  royal  and  papal  authorities. 

It  inevitably  followed  that  numbers  of  ambitious  per- 
sons obtained  liigh  places  in  the  church  through  royal 
favor  or  political  mancEuvring  or  by  money.  Inferior 
places  of  course  went  the  same  way  ;  and  simony  became 
a  prevailing  vice  of  the  clergy. 

3.  The  ministrations  of  the  church  conducted  b^'  such 
men  had  ceased  to  contain  instruction.  Preaching  in 
most  places  was  obsolete.  The  service  was|in  Latin  ;  and 
that  was  no  longer  spoken  or  understood  by  the  people. 
Religion  itself  became  a  dead  language  to  the  greater 
number,— a  mere  system  of  observances  and  repetition 
of  chanted  or  mumbled  sounds. 

4.  The  monasteries,  in  which  piety  and  intelligence 
did  find  some  refuge,  were  always  difficult  to  regulate. 
Houses  on  the  system  of  Benedict,  after  many  fluctua- 
tions, before  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  had  all 
degenerated.  Monks  had  become  irregular,  idle  and  dis- 
'solute.  As  a  measure  of  reform — the  only  reform  belong- 
ing to  the  tenth  century, — the  convent  of  Cluny  was 
founded  in  910  by  William  of  Aquitaine.  The  rules  of 
Benedict  were  there  revived  and  some  were  added,  espe- 
cially by  the  second  abbot  Odo,  who  by  the  strictness  of 
his  discipline  secured  for  his  convent  a  reputation  of  emi- 
nent sanctity.  After  its  example,  other  monasteries  were 
founded  or  reformed,  and  its  abbots  were  sometimes 
invited  elsewhere  for  that  purpose.  The  association  of 
monasteries,  looking  to  Cluny  as  their  exemplar,  was 
spoken  of  as  the  Oongregatio  Cltouacensis,  and  its  abbots 
sometimes,  as  archabbots.  Many  persons  who  were  not 
monks  so   connected  themselves   with   them    as   to    be 


107 

allowed,  according  to  the  then  prevailing  ideas,  a  "share 
in  the  spiritual  blessing  of  the  brotherhood,"  and  were 
called  Fratres  Oonscripti,  or  Confratres.  Oluny  was 
assigned  to  the  immediate  care  of  the  pope.  In  that 
respect  also  many  other  monasteries  followed  its  example. 

5.  The  reign  of  ignorance  and  superstition  continued. 
God  was  concealed  from  the  view  of  worshipers  b}^  a 
multitude  of  saints  held  up  for  adoration  in  his  stead. 
Every  place  of  worship  was  supplied  with  their  relics, 
which  were  bought  and  sold  for  their  miraculous  virtues. 
And  popular  instruction,  consisted  almost  solely  of 
legends  designed  to  set  off  such  wares.  The  Virgin 
Mary  was  honored  most  of  all.  Saturday  was  set  apart 
to  her,  and  a  daily  office  introduced  in  her  worship. 

The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  not  entirely  left  out  of 
view,  but  together  with  other  persons  of  the  Godhead 
was  put  at  a"  great  distance  otf,  when  he  was  not  repre- 
sented as  a  child  or  a  corpse.  Access  to  him  as  God  was 
held  to  be  through  his  mother. 

In  doctrine,  the  church  still  professed  the  creed  of  the 
general  councils  ;  practically,  reliance  for  salvation  rested 
upon  good  works,  penance  and  the  intercession  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  and  the  saints.  By  good  works  were  under- 
stood works  of  mercy,  but  also,  to  a  great  extent,  acts  of 
asceticism,  or  of  attendance  on  formal  observances,  or 
donations  to  the  church.  Penances  were  now  reduced 
to  a  system,  regulated  by  written  rules.  It  was  an  act  of 
great  merit  to  exceed  those  rules,  by  voluntary  infliction. 
It  was  now  practically  admitted  that  pardon  of  sin  could 
be  granted  by  the  priest,  upon  confession  to  him,  and 
compliance  with  the  penance  imposed.  Excommunica- 
tion, as  a  means  of  coercion,  now  reached  its  extremest 
severity  ;  and  was  carried  to  its  widest  application,  in  the 
form  of  the  interdict. 

A  signal  confession  of  judicial  incapacity  was  implied 
in  trial  by  ordeal,  a  heathen  custom  introduced  from  Ger- 
many, and  now  superintended  by  the  clergy;  of  similar 
nature  was  that  of  trial  by  battle,  the  most  degenerate 
effects  of  which  have  lasted  longest. 

One  institution  of  the  time  for  which  the  clergy 
deserve  credit  was  the  Truce  of  God,  au  attempt  to  put 


108 

some  check,  though  only  partial  and  brief,  upon  the  pre- 
valence of  private  wars. 

Popularly  it  was  believed  tliat  all  things  were  sinking 
towards  dissolution,  and  that  the  world  would  come  to  an 
end  in  the  year  1000  after  Christ. 

The  very  missionary  enterprises  of  the  time  partook 
of  its  wild  half  heathenish  charactei".  In  Norway  Chris- 
tianity was  established  by  force  of  arms.  By  the  same 
means  it  obtained  the  mastery  in  Bohemia  and  was  forced 
upon  the  Wends  by  the  German  Empire,  upon  the  Hun- 
garians by  their  Kings,  and  upon  the  Russians  by  their 
Grand  Duke.  That  the  gospel  of  Christ  survived  such 
extravagant  misrepresentation  is  almost  miraculous,  and 
due  chiefly  to  the  preservation  of  the  written  Word,  and 
the  fact  that  there  was  always  somewhere  a  remnant  true 
to  the  spirit  of  its  instructions. 

6.  In  order  to  a  just  apprehension  of  the  church  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  it  is  important  to  distinguish  between 
the  church  and  the  hierarchy,  and  in  the  hierarchy  itself, 
between  the  episcojial  authorities  and  the  papal. 

The  church  of  God  was  oppressed,  crushed  beneath 
the  weight  of  powers  which  had  assumed  to  govern  it, 
and  were  making  their  gain  thereby;  but  it  was  never 
extinguished.  Prevented  from  demonstrating  itself  out- 
wardly in  any  proper  organic  form,  it  existed  in  the 
hearts  of  individuals  and  in  their  spiritual  sympathy  and 
understanding  with  one  another,  in  as  far  as  they  had  any 
knowledge  of  each  other's  faith.  In  that  state  of  things 
;a  pious  clergyman  or  prince  was  of  great  service  in  giv- 
ing centralization  to  some  extent  to  the  scattered  piety 
of  the  christian  Avorld.  The  most  conspicuous  example 
of  that  kind,  within  the  period  of  which  we  are  now 
speaking,  was  that  of  Alfred,  King  of  England,  with  his 
immediate  successors,  Edward  and  Athelstane.  Alfred 
was  king  from  871  to  900,  and  his  son  and  grandson  suc- 
cessively maintained  his  improvements  until  940.  Sub- 
sequently England  was  harassed  by  Danish  invasion, 
under  which  state  and  church  alike  suffered  a  new  and 
deeper  depression,  until  all  England,  came  under  the  rule 
of  the  Danish  king  Canute.  A  brief  attempt  at  better 
government  by  that  wise  monarch  was  followed  by  new 


109 

disorders,  until  the  kingdom  was  overwhelmed  by  the 
Norman  conquest,  in  1066. 

7.  In  the  same  year  in  which  Leo  IX.  died,  1054,  all 
intercourse  between  the  eastern  and  western  catholic 
churches  came  to  an  end.  A  letter  from  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  to  a  friend,  commenting  on  the  errors  and 
abuses  of  the  west,  was  responded  to  with  great  bitter- 
ness. Papal  delegates  were  sent  to  Constantinople  who 
attempted  to  treat  the  Patriarch  as  a  subject  of  the  Pope. 
Their  pretensions  were  not  allowed.  They  laid  an  act 
of  excommunication  upon  the  great  altar  of  St.  Sophia, 
to  which  the  patriarch  responded  with  an  anathema, 
And  thus,  on  the  16th  of  July,  1054,  the  two  great  hie- 
rarchs  parted  forever. 

8.  It  was  at  the  same  juncture,  when  the  Popes 
entirely  separated  from  the  eastern  church,  that  they 
began  to  adopt  those  measures  of  policy  which  eventuated 
in  maturing  the  Papal  system,  and  in  carrying  it  to  a 
real  domination  over  the  west.  The  next  period  is  that 
of  the  highest  papal  prosperity. 

VII.     1054—1305. 

The   Revived   Papacy   Reaches   the  Summit  of  its 

Prosperity. 

In  the  year  1054,  upon  the  death  of  Leo  IX.,  Hilde- 
brand  first  undertook  to  manage  the  papal  elections. 
The  policy  of  his  adoption  continued,  in  the  main,  suc- 
cessful until  the  quarrel  with  the  King  of  France,  which 
issued  in  removal  of  the  papal  residence  to  Avignon,  in 
1305.  The  interval  is  a  true  historical  period  possessing 
features  of  its  own,  to  be  found  no  where  else.  It  pre- 
sents the  maturity  of  the  Papacy,  within  which  that  sys- 
tem exercised  the  highest  and  widest  authority  it  was 
ever  permitted  to  wield.  Secondly,  it  was  the  time  of 
controversy  between  the  German  Emperors  and  the 
Popes.  A  third  feature  was  the  scholastic  theology;  a 
fourth,  the  Crusades;  and  a  fifth,  the  progressive  quick- 
ening of  intellect,  as  manifested  in  the  increase  of  dis- 
senting religious  sects,  incipiencj'  of  popular  song,  and 
rise  and  progress  of  schools  and  universities. 

1.  During  the  pontificate  of  Leo  IX.,  Hildebrand, 


110 

now  a  cardinal  subcleacon,  improved  everv  opportunity 
to  increase  his  influence;  and  succeeded  in  putting  him- 
self at  the  head  of  a  party  seeking  to  correct  abuses  in 
the  church,  which  had  long  been  found  incorrigible. 
Three  objects  he  had  in  view;  first  the  removal  of  Simon}^ 
and  lay  interference  in  church  matters  ;  second,  to  repress 
the  immorality  of  the  clergy,  and  third  to  bind  all  the 
elements  of  the  papacy  into  such  a  system  as  to  realize 
the  supremacy  to  which  it  aspired.  A  grand  conception 
tliat  of  a  dominion  constructed,  by  means  of  a  perfectly 
organized  hierarchy,  upon  the  basis  of  religion  and 
morals,  and  subordinating  to  itself  all  the  other  powers 
and  dignities  of  earth,  but  it  had  only  a  mechanical  rela- 
tion to  the  kingdom  of  Clirist.  It  was  not  entirely  new. 
It  had  certainly  been  entertained  by  some  of  the  gifted 
popes  of  the  ninth  century.  But  Hildebrand  recognized 
and  retrieved  its  elements  from  the  degradation  to  which 
they  had  been  reduced  in  a  long  career  of  papal  profli- 
gacy, and  reconstructed  them,  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances,  with  the  greatest  effect. 

Execution  of  the  design  began  with  enforcing  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy;  and  much  to  that  end  was  done 
by  Leo  IX.;  but  the  pivot  of  the  whole  was  in  the  papal 
elections,  which  Hildebrand  never  suffered  to  escape 
from  his  control.  By  application  to  the  emperor  he 
obtained  the  appointment  of  the  candidate  of  his  choice 
as  successor  to  Leo.  Gebhardt  bishop  of  Eichstadt,  an 
influential  counsellor  of  the  emperor,  and  centre  of  an 
antipapal  party  in  the  north,  was  a  manifold  gain  to  the 
cause  of  papal  reform.  He  assumed  the  name  of 
Victor  11. ,  and  continued  in  office  until  his  death  in 
1057.  Meanwhile  in  1056  the  Emperor  Henry  III.  died, 
leaving  his  oldest  son,  a  child  of  six  years,  under  the 
regency  of  the  Empress.  In  those  circumstances,  the 
reforming  party  had  no  difficult}-  in  electing  their  own 
candidate,  who  took  the  name  Stephen  IX.  During 
Hildebrand's  absence  from  Rome,  Stephen  died  ;  and  the 
opposite  party  elected  Benedict  X.  Hildebrand,  on  his 
return  succeeded  in  reversing  that  action,  and  in  setting 
up  Nicholas  11.  Under  Nicholas  a  law  was  enacted  to 
regulate  papal  elections,  ordaining  that  the  pope  should 
be  elected  from  the  cardinals,  and  by  the  college  of  car- 


Ill 

dinals.  At  this  juncture  the  reforming  party  secured 
the  support  of  the  Normans,  who  had  recently  taken 
possession  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 

When  Nicholas  II.  died,  in  1061,  the  pope  elected  by 
the  opposing  party  with  the  sanction  of  the  empress  was 
constrained  to  give  place  to  Alexander  II.  elected  by  the 
cardinals  alone.  In  1073,  after  the  death  of  Alexander, 
the  choice  of  the  cardinals  fell  upon  Hildebrand  who  took 
the  name  Gregory  VII.  The  young  emperor  Henry  IV. 
was  now  on  the  throne.  Pope  Alexander  had  excom- 
municated some  of  the  imperial  counsellors,  and  de- 
manded their  removal  from  court.  But  they  had  been 
retained  in  favor.  Hildebrand  took  up  the  cause,  and 
called  upon  the  emperor  to  comply  with  the  papal 
demand.  Henry,  at  the  first  admonition,  was  engaged 
in  war,  and  replied  b\^  a  submissive  letter.  And  so  the 
matter  rested  for  that  time. 

But  the  authority  assumed  by  the  new  pope  was  such 
as  upon  being  more  fully  unfolded, the  emperor  perceived 
he  could  not  allow.  The  policy  of  Gregory  YII.,  not 
declared  all  at  once,  but  evinced  in  the  course  of  his 
pontificate,  and  abundantly  stated  in  his  epistles,  and  suc- 
cinctly epitomized  in  the  Diciatus  Gregorii,  aimed  at 
establishing  the  Papacy  as  an  absolute  despotism  over 
all  the  powers  and  potentates  of  earth,  ecclesiastical  and 
civil,  and  arrogated  for  it,  even  from  monarchs,  the  pro- 
fession of  homage  by  acts  the  most  abject  and  degrading. 
But  the  office,  during  the  twenty  years  of  his  preceding 
counsels,  had  gained  immensely  by  the  removal  of  moral 
corruption,  by  the  systematizing  of  its  business,  by  the 
dignified  regularity  of  elections,  and  frequent  and  con- 
sistent assertion  of  its  sovereignty  before  a  public  well 
prepared  to  admit  them.  The  subjection  of  the  clergy, 
on  the  footing  of  celibacy,  and  isolation  from  the  com- 
mon interests  of  society,  had  been,  in  the  main,  effected. 
And  the  Reformer  was  now  prepared  to  enter  upon  the 
third  part  of  his  project,  namely  the  removal  of  simony, 
and  of  lay  interference  in  the  church.  To  achieve  that 
he  must  begin  with  the  source  from  which  that  widely 
ramified  evil  proceeded,  at  the  court  of  the  emperor,  and 
with  the  case  of  episcopal  investiture.  The  occasion 
which  led  to  actual  hostilities  was  the  excommunication 


112 

of    certain    imperial    counsellors    for    simony,    and    the 
emperor's  failure  to  remove  them  from  his  service. 

That  case  stood  in  suspense  for  over  two  j-ears. 
Meanwhile  at  a  Synod  in  Rome  (1075,)  it  was  decreed 
that  if  any  person  should  accept  a  bishopric,  or  an  abbacy 
from  the  hands  of  a  layman,  he  should  not  be  regarded 
as  a  bishop  or  an  abbot,  nor  allowed  to  enter  a  church, 
until  he  had  given  up  the  illegal  claim  :  and  all  laymen, 
of  whatever  rank,  who  should  bestow  such  investiture, 
were  to  be  excluded  from  church  communion.  !Next 
year,  Gregory  summoned  the  emperor  to  appear  before 
him  in  Rome,  on  pain  of  anathema,  if  he  failed  to  obey. 
He  did  not  obey  ;  but  on  the  contrary,  called  a  council  of 
German  bishops  at  Worms,  and  had  a  sentence  of  deposi- 
tion passed  against  the  pope.  Gregory  forthwith  issued 
his  excommunication  of  the  emperor,  declaringhim  incom- 
petent to  reign  any  longer,  and  forbade  his  subjects  to 
obey  him.  He  also  excommunicated  the  assembly  at 
Worms.  The  subjects  of  the  emperor  were  divided. 
The  princes  met  at  Tribur,  and  resolved  that  he  should 
not  reign  until  he  had  obtained  removal  of  the  excom- 
munication ;  and  appointed  a  council  to  meet  at  Augs- 
burg to  try  him,  in  which  trial  the  pope  was  to  preside. 
Henry  hurried  into  Italy,  and  met  the  pope  at  Canossa ; 
but  obtained  admittance  to  his  presence  only  after  a  most 
humiliating  penance  of  three  days  before  the  door  of  the 
castle.  He  obtained  remission  of  his  punishment,  and 
then,  once  more  emperor,  thought  of  revenge  for  his 
humiliation.  The  pope  was  now  in  danger.  His  party  in 
Germany  elected  a  new  emperor,  Rudolph  of  Suabia. 
War  ensued,  which  lasted  several  years.  The  pope 
renewed  the  excommunication.  The  emperor  renewed 
his  act  of  deposing  the  pope,  and  added  to  that  the  elec- 
tion of  another  pope,  Clement  HI.,  whom  he  took  to 
Rome,  and  enthroned  by  force  of  arms.  Meanwhile 
Rudolph  died.  The  full  weight  of  the  imperial  arm  now 
fell  upon  the  pope,  who  found  refuge  among  the  l^ov- 
mans  of  Naples,  and  died  at  Salerno,  May  25,  1085. 
Thus  the  first  attempt  at  coercing  the  emperor  failed. 

Rope  Clement  III.,  reigned  in  Rome.  But  the  Gre- 
gorian party  elected  their  own  pope,  Victor  III.,  and 
when  he  died,  in  1087,  continued  the  succession  by  elect- 


113 

ing  Urban. II.  For  more  than  ten  years  the  emperor 
retained  his  advantage,  and  the  Gregorian  party  remained 
under  depression,  until  the  enthusiasm  of  the  first  Cru- 
sade swept  away  everything  before  it.  Of  that  move- 
ment Urban  was  the  organizing  power.  On  its  tide  he 
was  carried  to  Rome  in  triumph.  Military  resources 
were  withdrawn  from  the  emperor  by  the  irresistible 
attraction  of  the  Crusade.  Pope  Clement  unsustained 
ceased  to  be  of  any  importance.  He  survived  his  rival  a 
few  months,  but  in  such  reduced  circumstances  of  his 
party  that  upon  his  death  no  successor  could  take  his 
place.  The  first  Crusade  was  the  real  triumph  of  Hilde- 
brand.  From  that  juncture  the  fortunes  of  Henry  IV. 
declined.  Urban  II.,  died  July  29,  1099,  just  fourteen 
days  after  the  Crusaders  had  entered  Jerusalem.  But 
his  successor,  Pascal  II.,  pursued  the  same  policy.  The 
emperor,  reduced  in  resources,  was  persecuted  with  ana- 
themas, his  son  encouraged  to  rebel  against  him,  and  his 
subjects  to  revolt,  until  broken  down  in  health  and  spirit, 
he  retired  to  private  life,  and  died  in  povert}',  1106. 

The  same  year,  the  controversy' about  investitures  in 
England  was  settled  b}'  the  pope  giving  his  sanction  to 
the  practice  of  churchmen,  holding  benefices,  taking  the 
oath  of  fealty  to  the  king.  The  king  of  France  also  fell 
under  papal  excommunication,  to  which  he  submitted, 
and  was  absolved. 

In  the  history  of  the  papacy,  the  next  two  hundred 
years  were  occupied  with  a  struggle  to  maintain  that 
elevation  of  supremacy  secured  in  the  end  of  the 
eleventh.  In  some  quarters  it  was  held  with  great  difii- 
oulty;  in  others  it  was  increased ;  sometimes  the  pope 
seemed  on  the  verge  of  failure  ;  for  his  supremacy  over 
the  state  was,  even  in  its  best  days,  of  precarious  tenure; 
but  some  favorable  event  always  turned  up  to  restore  him 
to  his  vantage  ground;  and  in  the  last  emergency,  his 
refuge  was  in  popular  superstition  and  commotion,  especi- 
ally a  crusade,  in  which  he  was  always  looked  to  by 
western  Europe  as  the  head  of  Christendom.  The  ques- 
tion of  investitures  was  settled  with  the  empire,  1122,  by 
a  compromise,  in  which  the  monarch  invested  with  the 
temporalities,  and  the  pope  with  the  spiritual  office,  and 
symbols  were  chosen  accordingly. 


114 

With  the  death  of  Henry  V.,  in  1155,  the  imperial 
dynasty  of  Franconia  came  to  an  end,  Lothaire  of  Sax- 
ony was  elected  in  the  papal  interest.  During  his  reign 
the  papacy  enjoyed  the  full  support  of  the  civil  power, 
but  was  divided  by  a  schism  within  itself  most  of  the 
time.  Lothaire  III.  died  in  1137,  and  the  new  and  more 
potent  dynasty  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  the  ducal  line  of 
Suabia,  came  to  the  throne  in  the  person  of  Conrad  III. 
In  the  interest  of  that  imperial  house,  a  party  was  formed, 
which  received  the  name  Waibelingen,  or  Ghibelline, 
opposed  to  the  Guelphs,  or  Saxon  party,  which  sustained 
the  pope.  For  ages  these  two  factions  distracted  Italy 
and  the  empire. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  a  young  priest,  had  come  from 
study  of  Scripture  to  the  conviction  that  the  clergy 
should  hold  no  estate;  but  live  upon  the  free  will  otfer- 
ings  of  the  church;  and  that  priests  of  corrupt  morals 
were  by  that  fact  no  longer  priests  at  alL  Some  of  his 
views  accorded  with  the  eltbrts  at  that  time  made  b}' 
some  Italian  cities  to  secure  their  independence,  and 
were  accepted  very  extensively.  Arnold  was  condemned 
by  the  Lateran  council  of  1139.  But  his  opinions  pre- 
vailed with  a  great  majority  of  the  people  even  in  Rome. 
A  revolution  was  contemplated,  in  which  the  temporal 
sovereignty  of  the  pope  was  to  be  abolished,  and  the 
ancient  republican  government  restored.  The  insurgents 
occupied  the  Capitol.  Pope  Lucius  II  was  killed  in  the 
attempt  to  reduce  thein  by  force.  His  successor  Eugen- 
ius  III.  fled  to  France,  and  awaited  some  favorable  turn 
'of  atfairs.  He  had  not  long  to  wait.  The  Kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  hard  pressed  by  the  Saracens,  who  had  taken 
the  city  of  Edessa,  was  calling  aloud  to  Europe  for  relief. 
B}^  the  preaching  of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  and  others, 
the  crusading  frenzy  was  aroused  once  more.  A  vast 
army  v;as  raised  and  marched  oft"  to  Palestine  in  1147, 
under  command  of  the  Eniperor  Conrad  III.,  and  King 
Louis  YII.  of  France.  Inferior  interests  lost  their  hold 
upon  the  public  mind.  Zeal  for  the  crusade  absorbed 
all.  Once  more  the  Pope  was  the  highest  dignitary  in 
Europe.  Eugenius  was  restored  to  Rome  and  protected 
by  the  arms  of  Roger  of  Sicily.  The  second  crusade 
failed  in  the  east;  but  it  buoyed  up  the  papal   cause  at 


115 

home.  B}'  the  address  of  Adrian  IV.,  who  came  to  the 
papal  chair  in  1154,  the  Romans  were  induced  to  hanish 
Arnold.  The  Emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa  marched  an 
army  into  the  north  of  Italy  and  reduced  the  Lombard 
towns.  Arnold  was  surrendered  into  his  hands,  and  by 
him  transferred  to  the  pope.  The  pope  hanged  him, 
burned  his  body,  and  cast  the  ashes  into  the  Tiber. 
Arnold  was  the  victim,  over  whose  immolation  the  Em- 
peror and  the  Pope  held  a  common  rejoicing  and  for  the 
time  reconciled  their  differences. 

It  was  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  who  in  1155  granted  to  Henry 
II.  of  England  to  conquer  Ireland,  on  the  condition  of 
annexing  it  to  the  Roman  See.  A  few  years  later,  a 
papal  attempt  to  make  the  clergy  of  England  indepen- 
dent of  the  crown  to  connect  them  more  intimately  with 
Rome,  gave  occasion  to  the  meeting  at  Clarendon,  in 
1164,  which  drew  up  the  celebrated  Clarendon  Constitu- 
tions, one  of  the  oldest  documents  lying  at  the  basis  of 
English  freedom.  The  articles  were  sixteen,  designed  to 
limit  Papal  ao;gressions,  and  make  the  clergy  amenable, 
in  some  degree,  like  other  men,  to  laws  of  the  land. 
Becket  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  the  whole 
body  of  the  English  clergy,  took  oath  to  observe  them. 
But  the  articles  being  condemned  by  the  Pope,  Becket 
changed  his  mind  and  broke  his  oath,  upon  obtaining 
papal  absolution.  His  subsequent  conduct  was  that  of 
rebellion  against  the  king,  and  directed  to  sustain  papal- 
ism  in  England.  It  led  to  a  dispute  between  him  and 
the  king  in  which  he  fled  to  the  continent.  A  reconcili- 
ation took  place.  But  after  restoration,  Becket  returned 
to  his  former  practices.  Four  English  knights,  hearing 
the  king  express  himself  angrily  about  the  matter,  went 
to  Canterbury  and  slew  Becket  while  at  service  in  church. 
(1170).  The  king  was  blamed,  and  four  years  later  was 
constrained  to  do  penance  at  Becket's  tomb. 

Pope  Alexander  III.  (1159-1181)  assumed,  in  recog- 
nizing ttie  independence  of  Portugal,  to  grant  to  the 
kings  of  that  country  the  right  to  as  much  land  as  they 
could  conquer  from  the  Mohammedans. 

In  1183,  the  Emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa  made 
peace  with  the  Lombards,  secured  the  favor  of  the  Ger- 
man clergy,  and  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  to  the  heiress 


116 

of  Sicily,  attached  that  wealthy  island  to  his  dynasty. 
The  strength  of  the  papal  support  was  thereby  divided, 
while  insurrection  raged  within  the  papal  e>tates.  Lucius 
III.  and  Urban  III.,  were  successively  expelled  from 
Rome. 

But  again  the  papacy  was  saved  by  a  crusade.  Sala- 
din  had  taken  Jerusalem,  (1187),  and  all  Europe  was 
roused  to  a  new  effort  for  recovery  of  the  holy  places. 
The  Emperor  put  himself  at  the  head  of  it,  May,  1189, 
marching  by  land.  He  lost  his  life  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
his  army  perished  at  the  seige  of  Acre.  Two  other  por- 
tions of  the  great  army  were  led  by  Philip  Augustus  of 
France,  and  Richafd  I.  of  England.  With  all  the  armies 
led  out,  and  prodigies  of  valor,  on  the  part  of  the  crusa- 
ders, little  was  eflected.  Pliilip  Augustus,  soon  after  the 
seige  of  Acre,  returned  home;  and  Richard,  after  taking 
Joppa  and  Askelon,  learning  that  the  King  of  France 
was  projecting  an  invasion  of  Englaiul,  concluded  a 
peace  of  three  years  with  Saladin,  and  left  Palestine, 
Sept.  1192.  Meanwhile  the  pope  had  brought  Rome  to 
submission,  and  re-established  his  authority,  and  the 
early  death  of  the  new  emperor,  Henry  VI.,  removed  the 
danger  threatening  from  his  possession  of  Sicily  in  right 
of  his  wife.  The  heir  of  the  imperial  house  was  a  child 
only  three  years  of  age,  when  the  most  successful  of  all 
popes  began  his  pontificate.  Henry  VI.  died  Sept.  28, 
1197,  and  Innocent  III.  ascended  the  chair  of  the  papacy, 
on  the  8th  of  January  following. 

Circumstances  favored  the  new  pope  in  a  remarkable 
manner.  Rome  had  been  pacified.  The  death  of  the 
emperor  gave  place  to  a  long  contested  succession,  the 
empress  Constantia,  heiress  of  Sicily,  to  secure  that 
dominion  for  her  son,  accepted  investiture  from  the  Pope, 
and  on  the  eve  of  her  death  which  took  place  before  the 
end  of  1198,  constituted  him  guardian  of  the  infant 
prince,  while  both  France  and  England  were  enfeebled 
by  the  crusade,  and  by  mutually  threatened  war.  No 
other  pontiff"  ever  realized  to  the  same  extent  the  Gre- 
gorgian  idea  of  the  papacy.  King  John  of  England  who 
attempted  to  disregard  his  mandate,  was  brought  to  sub- 
mission by  an  interdict,  laid  upon  his  kingdom,  and  was 
restored  only  upon  accepting  his  crown   as  a  gift  of  the 


117 

pope,  and  recognizing  Englanu  as  a  province  of  the 
Roman  See.  This  led  to  the  meeting  of  the  barons  at 
Runnymede,  1215,  and  the  drawing  up  of  the  Magna 
Charta,  which  they  compelled  their  unworthy  king  to 
sign,  as  some  security  then  and  afterwards  against  such 
alienation  of  themselves  and  their  countr3\ 

Innocent  III.  also  organized  a  crusade.  It  never 
reached  Palestine,  but  instead  of  that,  beseiged  and  took 
Constantinople,  in  1204,  and  set  up  there  a  Latin  King. 
Whereupon  the  pope  reasserted  his  jurisdiction  in  the 
eastern  empire  ;  but  without  obtaining  acknowledgment 
by  the  Greek  church.  The  most  successful  crusade  of 
Innocent  III.  was  that  against  the  Albigenses  ;  a  numer- 
ous dissenting  sect,  in  the  south  of  France.  Romish 
arguments  failing  to  convince  them,  armies  were  marched 
into  their  country,  v^hich  in  successive  years,  from  1209, 
covered  it  with  slaughter  and  desolation. 

In  1215,  Innocent  called  a  council  in  Rome,  the 
fourth  Lateran,  or,  according  to  Romish  reckoning,  the 
twelfth  ecumenical,  at  which  various  important  questions 
pertaining  to  Romish  doctrine  and  practice  were  authori- 
tatively settled.  At  that  point  Papalism  reached  the 
apex  of  its  prosperity.  Innocent  died  next  year,  but 
where  he  left  it  the  elevation  of  success  remained  station- 
ary through  all  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Honorius  III., 
that  is  until  1227.  The  imperious  ill  temper  of  Gregory 
IX.,  renewed  the  vexatious  quarrel  with  the  empire,  and 
led  the  way  in  a  course  of  policy  which  ultimately  reduced 
it,  but  also  dragged  into  humiliation  his  own  office. 

Frederic  II.  was  constrained  to  undertake  a  crusade. 
Because  he  delayed  in  carr3'ing  it  out  Gregory  excom- 
municated him  :  and  after  he  set  out  followed  him  with 
excommunication.  J^'rederic  was  successful,  recaptured 
Jerusalem,  and  secured  a  treaty  of  peace  for  the  chris- 
tians of  Palestine  for  ten  years  ;  but  found,  on  returning 
home,  that  he  had  to  wage  war  with  the  Pope.  From 
this  time,  it  was  the  papal  purpose  to  break  down  the 
Suabian  dynasty,  and  secure  the  election  of  more  com- 
pliant occupants  of  the  imperial  throne.  Unrelentingly 
was  that  policy  pursued  until,  after  the  early  death  of 
Frederic's  successor,  Conrad,  in  1254,  another  minority 
and  regency  occurred.     Advantage    was  taken    of  that 


118 

juncture  to  invite  Charles  of  Anjou  to  assirne  posse-^sioii 
of  Sicily.  The  attempt  of  the  3'Ouiig  Conradiu  to  defeml 
his  father's  dominion  failed.  And  the  last  heir  of  the 
Hohenstaufen  taken  prisoner  perished  on  the  scaffold, 
(1268),  and  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX,  of 
France,  became  king  of  Sicily  in  the  papal  interest. 
Five  years  later,  the  equally  papal  house  of  Hapsbnrg 
was  elevated  to  the  throne  of  the  greatly  reduced  empire , 
in  the  person  of  Rudolph. 

But  already  the  long  train  of  papal  losses  had  begun. 
In  1261,  the  Greeks, under  Michael  Palpeologus,  recovered 
possession  of  Constantinople  and  expelled  the  Latin 
government.  A  subsequent  attempt,  at  the  council  of 
Lyons,  1274,  to  establish  papal  jurisdiction  in  the  east, 
was  agreed  to  by  the  eastern  emperor,  but  defeated  by 
the  refusal  of  the  Greek  Church  to  comply.  The 
attempt  gave  rise  to  other  fabrications  in  support  of  the 
Papacy. 

French  rule  in  Sicil}^  proved  intense!}'  unpopular.  ^  It 
was  expelled  by  the  insurrection,  called  the  Sicilian  Ves- 
pers, March  30,  1282,  and  the  government  put  into  the 
hands  of  the  King  of  Aragon. 

The  seventh  and  last  crusade  to  Palestine  was  led  by 
Louis  IX.  of  France  and  Prince  Edward  of  England,  in 
1270.  Louis  died  at  Tunis.  Edward  reached  Palestine, 
but  could  only  delay  the  fate  of  Acre,  by  extorting  a  truce 
of  three  years.  In  1291  Acre  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Mohammedans,  and  the  whole  was  over. 

The  crusades  were  the  wars  of  the  Papac}"  for  its  own 
causfi,  when  that  cause  was  identified  with  the  interests 
of  Christianity  in  the  west.  Their  termination  was  not 
only  the  loss  of  an  eifective  weapon,  but  also  a  symptom 
of  declining  influence  over  the  christian  public. 

But  a  more  serious  calamity  befel  the  Papacy  in  the 
dispute  which  arose  between  Boniface  VIII.  and  Philip 
the  fair,  King  of  France,  in  which  the  King,  on  princi- 
ples of  law,  resisted  a  Papal  mandate,  and  when  the  Pope 
attempted  to  enforce  it,  sent  a  commission  into  Italy, 
which  arrested  him.  The  indignity  so  affected  Boniface 
as  to  throw  him  into  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  Oct.  11, 
1303.  The  next  Pontiff,  Benedict  XL,  did  not  press  the 
offensive  demands;  and  after  his  death,  King  Philip  sue- 


119 

ceeded  in  getting  his  own  candidate  elected  who  was 
pledged  to  remain  in  France.  Clement  V.  took  up  his 
residence  at  Avignon,  in  1305.  And  the  proudest  days 
of  the  papacy  were  over. 

In  the  Papal  history  of  this  period  there  was  more 
concerned  than  superstition  and  submission,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  ambition  on  the  other.  There  was  extraordi- 
nary intellectual  power,  and  an  unscrupulous  use  of  both 
force  and  fraud,  and  tliat  continued  with  little  abatement, 
or  exception,  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The  series 
of  events  may  be  comprehended  under  the  following 
heads. 

1.  Reform  and  reorganization  of  the  Papac}',  1054 — 
1085. 

2.  Its  first  success,  in  war  with  the  Empire,  by  means 
of  the  first  crusade,  1099. 

3.  Its  success  in  the  controversy  about  investitures, 
1122. 

4.  A  long  period  of  power  balanced  between  the  ris- 
ing free  spirit  of  Northern  Italy,  the  Normans  of  the 
South,  and  the  German  empire,  sustained  at  great  junct- 
ures by  the  second  and  third  crusades,  until  1198. 

5.  The  summit  of  success  under  Innocent  III.  and 
Honorius  III.,  1198-1227. 

6.  The  strife  for  supreme  temporal  power  with  the 
imperial  dynasty  of  Suabia,  until  the  overthrow  of  the 
latter,  and  elevation  of  the  obedient  house  of  Hapsbura:, 
1227-1273. 

7.  Papal  losses — loss  of  Constantinople,  1261. 
Failure  of  the  plan   of  union   devised  at  the  council  of 

Lyons,  1274-1282. 
Loss  ensuing  from  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  1282. 
Final  failure  of  the  Crusades,  1291. 
The  disastrous  controversy  with  Philip  the  Fair,  ending 

in  the  removal  from  Rome,  1305. 
2.  With  the  schools  founded  and  patronized  by 
Charlemagne,  there  were  always  connected  some  men  of 
letters.  During  the  tenth  century,  and  first  half  of  the 
eleventh,  the  series  was  very  slender.  Through  Erigena, 
Gottschalk,  Paschasius  Radbert,  and  a  few  others,  in  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century,  Hincmar  and  Ratramnus, 
in  th(^  latter  part  of  it,  the  line  is  barely  continued  by  a 


120 

few  such  men  as  Luitprand  of  Cremona,  and  Ratherius 
of  Verona,  to  Gerbert,  (Pope  Sylvester  II.)  who  died  in 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  Fulbert  of 
Chartres,  who  flourished  in  its  first  quarter.  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  century,  a  little  more  literary  effort  be- 
gan to  appear.  Then  we  read  of  Humbert,  Peter  Dami- 
ani,  Lanfranc,  Berengarins,  and  Hildebrand,  (Pope  Gre- 
ory  VIL),  in  the  course  of  whose  lives,  we  come  to  that 
class  of  writers  called  Schoolmen,  or  Scholastics,  and 
who  were,  at  the  same  time,  the  philosophers  and  theo- 
logians of  the  Middle  ages. 

True  scholasticism  was  the  application  of  logic,  with 
a  peculiar  subtlety  to  the  dogmas  of  the  Romish  church. 
Earlier  christian  writers  had  drawn  their  philosophy 
chiefly  from  Plato  ;  now  the  Platonic  elements  were  com- 
prehended in  and  subjected  to  Aristotelian  methods,  as 
far  as  the  latter  were  known  through  the  partial  transla- 
tion of  Boethius:  for  Aristotelian  induction  seems  to 
liave  been  unknown. 

Augustinian  theology  was  their  recognized  orthodoxy. 
But  the  practical  teaching  of  the  church,  which,  on  some 
points  had  departed  from  that  standard,  controlled  the 
arguments  of  most  of  them.  Some  advanced  doctrines 
which  were  censured  as  heretical,  but  in  the  main, 
scholastics  were  the  advocates  of  the  church  as  it  then 
stood. 

The  history  of  that  class  of  writers  begins  properly 
in  the  course  of  controversy  on  the  Eucharist,  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century.  At  that  date,  a 
'zealous  opponent  of  transubstantiation  was  Berengarius 
bishop  of  Tours.  The  subject  was  still  an  open  question, 
in  as  far  as  any  adequate  authority  was  concerned.  It 
had  been  decided  only  by  popular  consent.  Berenga- 
rius, from  about  1045,  publicly  taught  thatthe  bread  and 
wine  in  the  Eucharist  are  only  external  symbols  of 
Christ's  body  and  blood.  His  argument  was  immediately 
controverted  by  several  writers,  who  advocated  the  popu- 
lar belief  that  in  consecration  by  the  priest,  the  sacramen- 
tal elements  became  the  real  body  and  blood  of  the 
Lord.  Berengarius  was  condemned  in  1050,  by  no  less 
than  three  councils,  at  Rome,  Vercelli,  and  Paris.  He 
was   deprived    of  his    revenues    and    degraded.     Subse- 


121 

quently,  Pope  Victor  11.  was  incliiced  to  send  legates  to 
Tours  to  investigate  the  matter.  On  one  of  those  occa- 
sions, the  legate  was  Hildebrand,  who  seems  to  have  been 
disposed  to  treat  the  subject  leniently.  But  the  clergy 
as  a  whole  were  not  satistied.  Berengarius  was  after- 
wards brought  to  trial  before  a  council  at  Rome,  where 
a  definite  statement  of  doctrine  was  prescribed  for  him 
to  sign.  He  submitted  ;  but  afterwards  repented  of  the 
submission,  and  held  to  his  former  doctrine.  He  died 
in  1088. 

It  was  in  this  controversy  that  Lanfranc,  prior  of  Bee, 
and  subsequently  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  taking  up 
the  defence  of  transubstantiation,  employed  that  subtlety 
of  dialectics,  which  was  carried  to  greater  length  by  a  long 
array  of  writers  who  came  after  him.  In  the  hands  of 
Anselm,  his  immediate  successor  in  Canterbury,  1093 — 
1109,  it  reached  its  early  maturity  and  perhaps  its  best. 

The  history  of  scholasticism  divides  itself  into  three 
periods  :  from  1045  to  1164,  from  1164  to  1308,  and  from 
1308  until  the  eve  of  the  reformation.  The  first,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  controversy  with  Berengarius,  until 
the  Be^ith  ofPeter  Lombard,  1164,  labored  in  lectures 
and  controversial  tracts.  A  new  period  opened  in  the 
very  general  adoption  of  Peter  Lombard's  Book  of  Sen- 
tences as  a  guide  for  lecturers  on  theology,  whereby 
scholasticism  was  turned  to  the  systematic  treatment  of 
the  whole  body  of  theology.  In  that  direction  its  highest 
results  were  reached  in  the  works  of  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  Duns  Scotus.  AVith  the  death  of  the  latter,  1308, 
begins  the  period  of  scholastic  decline,  during  which  it 
was  also  gradually  overmastered  by  the  reviving  classic, 
and  the  broader  growth  of  modern  literature. 

An  inner  controversy,  on  Philosophic  ground,  early 
divided  scholastics  into  two  parties  as  Realists  andiSTom- 
inalists.  Nominalism  soon  fell  under  censure  of  the 
church,  and  gave  place  to  a  modification,  which  is  better 
named  conceptualism.  Realism  was  favored  by  the 
church. 

Another  division,  on  the  ground  of  faith,  separated 
among  them,  the  Rationalist  from  the  Mystic,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, Abelard  from  Bernard,  and  from  both,  a  media- 
ting party,  as  the  Theologians   of  St  Victor.     In  their 


122 

later  history,  they  were  divided  also  between  Franciscan 
and  Dominican  monks. 

The  progress  of  Scholasticism  carried  with  it  the 
improvement  of  the  schools,  which  from  the  poor  con- 
ventnal  instruction  of  the  eleventh  century  was  expanded 
until  it  blossomed  into  the  Universities  of  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth. 

Scholastic  freedom  of  speculation  lay  in  treatment  of 
points  concerning  which  Scripture  gives  only  indistinct 
hints,  and  the  church  had  yet  pronounced  no  positive 
dogma,  but  they  also  analyzed  with  apparent  freedom 
everj^  doctrine  of  the  creed.  And  some  ventured  into  a 
bolder  freedom,  which  exposed  them  to  heresy.  David 
of  Dinant,  for  example,  and  Amalric  of  Bena  were  by 
their  method  of  thinking  led  into  Pantheism,  and  other 
philosophical  erroi"s. 

On  some  points  their  conclusions  prepared  the  way 
for  the  authoritative  adoption,  as  dogmas,  of  what  had 
previously  been  only  optional  beliefs  ;  as  in  the-  case  of 
works  of  supererogation  ;  the  number  of  the  sacraments, 
definition  of  the  doctrine  of  penance,  and  of  priestly  abso- 
lution, and  transnbstantiation. 

The  more  eminent  Scholastics  carried  forward  phil- 
osophy in  a  real  progress,  beyond  all  that  had  ever  been 
done  before,  in  its  relations  to  theology;  profoundly 
weighing  the  philosophical  import  of  doctrines  :  and 
although  much  trifling  may  be  quoted  from  their  later 
writers,  yet  to  the  labors  of  Abelard,  of  Peter  Lombard, 
of  Bonaventura,  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  others,  of  the 
'twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  we  owe  the  first  kind- 
ling of  modern  Europe  to  intellectual  pursuits,  the  first 
scattering  of  light  into  the  depths  of  mediaeval  darkness, 
the  first  philosophy  which  western  Europe  could  call  her 
own,  and  the  first  classification  in  scientific  form  of  chris- 
tian theology. 

Some  of  the  Scholastics  also  opened  the  way  to  mod- 
ern scientific  investigation.  Such  were  Albertus  Magnus 
and  Roger  Bacon. 

3.  During  the  same  period  the  principal  part  of  the 
work  was  done  for  the  Canon  Law  which  conferred  upon 
it  the  completeness  of  its  form.  About  the  middle  of  the 
12th  century,  the  Decretum  of  Gratian  issued  from  the 


123 

celebrated  law  University  of  Bologna.  Subsequently 
large  collections  from  tbe""  decretals  of  later  popes  were 
added  to  it,  under  the  names  of  Decretals  and  Extrava- 
gantes.     And  thus  grew  up  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici. 

4.  Various  councils  successively  gave  their  sanction 
to  elements  of  doctrine,  discipline  and  worship,  which 
had  previously  grown  up  among  the  people,  and  in  eccle- 
siastical practice.  Of  those  the  most  important  was  the 
Fourth  Lateran,  which  confirmed  the  policy  of  Innocent 
III.,  established  the  practice  of  indulgence,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  works  of  supererogation,  of  confession  to  a  priest 
as  indispensible  to  obtaining  pardon  of  sin,  and  of  tran- 
substantiation  as  belonging  to  the  creed  of  the  church, 
and  the  duty  of  exterminating  heretics. 

5.  Attempts  were  made,  from  time  to  time,  to  restore 
union  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  catholic  churches, 
but  without  effect.  The  most  strenuous_  effort  to  that 
end  was  made  at  the  council  of  Lyons,  in  1274.  The 
Pope  and  the  Greek  Emperor  with  some  bishops  were 
agreed.  But  nothing  could  bend  the  Greek  church  into 
compliance.  After  'trying  for  a  few  years  by  ^severe 
measures,  to  constrain 'his  people,  the  Emperor  acknowl- 
edged his  discomfiture  ;  and  Rome  ignored  the  compact 
which  could  not  be  carried  into  effect.  As  soon  as  the 
emperor  died,  1282,  the  Greek  church  formally  repudi- 
ated the  whole  plan  of  reunion,  and  severely  censured  all 
who  had  in  any  way  been  concerned  in  it. 

6.  During  the  period  of  the  schoolmen,  the  literature 
of  the  Greek  church  continued  in  a  depressed  condition. 
The  scholastics  were  the  fruit  of  reviving  intellectual 
activity  in  the  west ;  were  themselves  the  beginning  of  a 
process  of  improvement.  But  no  such  process  had  yet 
begun  in  the  east.  Literary  culture  had  not  descended  so 
low  in  that  quarter :  but  it  exhibited  no  such  signs  of  a 
new  vitality.  The  Eastern  Empire  was  still  protracting 
its  long  decline,  struggling  for  existence  with  the  Moham- 
medans. And  the  energ'ies  of  the  Greeks  were  crushed 
under  the  discouragements  of  their  adverse  fortunes. 
Several  literary  nani^es  of  distinction  appear  among  them  ; 
but  none  as  connected  with  any  original  line  of  thought. 
Most  worthy  of  mention  were  Theophylact  archbishop  of 
Bulgaria,   d.   1112,  commentator   on    several  books    of 


124 

Scripture  ;  John  Zonaras,  one  of  the  best  Bj^zaiitine  his- 
torians, and  Knstathius,  archbishop  of  Thessah)nica, 
(d.  1198)  who,  besides  sermons,  wrote  a  copious  and  valu- 
able commentary  on  Homer. 

7.  Among  tlie  churches  of  the  further  east  there  were 
also  some  writers  of  distinction.  Such  were  Ebed-Jesu 
(d.  1318)  metropolitan  of  Nisibis,  among  the  Nestorians: 
Nerses  (d.  1173)  among  the  Armenians,  and  Dionj^sius 
Bar  Silibi,  bishop  of  Amida,  (d.  1171,)  among  the  Jacob- 
ites ;  in  which  connection  appears  also  the  more  illustri- 
ous name  of  Abulfarage  (Bar  Hebraeus)  (d.  1286),  and  that 
of  George  Elmacin,  historian  of  the  Saracens. 

8.  Witli  the  Jew^s  this  was  a  period  of  great  scholar- 
ship, when  Solomon  larchi  (d.  1105)  of  Troyes,  Aben 
Ezra  of  Toledo  (d.  1167),  David  Kimclji  of  Xarbonne 
(d.  about  1230),  and  Moses  Ben  Maimon,  or  Maimonides, 
(d.  1205)  of  Cordova,  labored  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

9.  It  was  also  the  flourishing  period  of  that  Arabic 
philosophy,  which  had  no  little  to  do  with  the  revival  of 
philosophical  studies  in  the  christian  west,  Avicenna 
died  1036;  Al  Gazali  in  1127,  and  Averoes  in  1217. 
Upon  ths  whole  there  was  an  extensive  quickening  of 
intellect  in  the  direction  of  philosophy. 

10.  Among  the  monasteries  irregularities  again  pre- 
vailed. Before  the  twelfth  centur}'  had  far  advanced, 
even  Cluny  itself  had  begun  to  degenerate.  Great 
efibrts  were  made  to  restore  discipline,  and  to  set  up  new 

^monasteries  with  severer  rules.  Some  of  the  orders  were 
suppressed  on  account  of  their  scandalous  immoralit3\ 
Still,  the  conviction  prevailed  that  the  proper  way  to  cor- 
rect these  evils  was  to  establish  new  orders  on  a  better 
plan.  Pope  Innocent  III.,  thought  proper  to  interfere, 
and  forbade  the  creation  of  any  more  orders  ;  and  the 
Lateral!  council  of  1215  took  action  to  same  eifect.  Not- 
withstanding, two  other  orders  were  sanctioned  under 
his  rule,  and  established  soon  afterwards,  which  proved 
of  more  influence  in  the  church  and  in  the  world  than  all 
the  preceding  had  been. 

The  active  apostolic  piety  and  missionary  labor  of  the 
poor  Waldensian  ministers,  and  the  progress  of  dissent- 
ing opinions  in  the  south  of  France,  and  adjoining  dis- 


125 

tricts,  arrested  the  attention,  and  alarmed  the  fears  of  the 
Komish  ecclesiastics.  Dominic  of  Osma  in  Spain,  and 
Francis  of  Assisi,  in  Italy,  about  the  same  time  conceived 
of  similar  plans  for  the  conversion  of  those  so  called  here- 
tics. Francis  be.u::an  in  1207  to  assemble  about  him  a 
bod^'  of  men,  whom  he  solemnh'  laid  under  obligations 
to  forego  all  earthly  possessions,  enjoyments  and  knowl- 
edge, and  devote  themselves  solely  to  travelling,  and 
preaching  the  doctrines  of  Rome.  They  were  to  be  called 
the  Ordo  Frairum  Minorum.  As  such  they  received  the 
oral  sanction  of  Innocent  III.,  1209,  and  were  fully  estab- 
lished by  Honorius  III.,  in  1223.  After  their  example, 
an  order  of  nuns  was  instituted,  that  of  Sta.  Clara,  with 
a  regida  drawn  up  by  Francis.  He  also  organized  an  Ordo 
tertius  de  Pmiitentia,  for  pious  laymen,  who  living  in  their 
own  houses,  and  enjoying  their  own  property,  with  their 
families,  maintained  a  sort  of  spiritual  union  under  a 
superior. 

Dominic,  who  had  been  em[)loyed  from  1205  in  trying 
to  convert  the  Albigenses,  by  preaching,  conceived  a 
similar  idea.  It  was  that  of  an  order,  which,  unincum- 
bered by  property,  should  travel  through  that  country 
preaching  the  doctrines  of  the  catholic  church.  In  1215 
the  plan  was  proposed  to  Innocent  III.  who  would  grant 
it  nothing  more  than  his  oral  permission.  But  it  was 
fully  sanctioned  next  year  by  Honorius  III.,  -under  the 
name  of  the  Ordo  Predicatorum.  Monks  of  that  order  are 
more  commonly  called,  by  the  name  of  their  founder, 
Dominican,  or  from  their  garb.  Black  Friars  ;  as  the  or- 
der of  Francis  is  generall}^  called  Franciscan,  or  Minor- 
ites, or  Gvey  Friars.  The  Dominicans  also  constituted 
Tertiaries. 

These  were  the  principal  mendicant  orders,  by  whom 
preaching,  long  neglected  in  the  catholic  church,  was 
revived.  Indirectly  they  conspired  with  the  lecturers  in 
the  schools  to  promote  the  awakening  spirit  of  inquiry, 
relatively  doing  for  the  populace  a  work  similar  to  what 
the  lecturers  were  accomplishing  in  the  schools.  Ulti- 
mately, they  became  also  the  lecturers,  and  occupied  the 
most  prominent  places  as  scholastic  writers.  Departing 
in  course  of  time  from  their  original  design,  they  de- 
parted also  from  the  rule  of  poverty.     On  that  subject 


126 

the  Franciscans  divided.  The  stricter  party  adhering  to 
the  rule,  formed  themselves  into  a  separate  order,  which 
received  the  name  of  Frailcelli. 

11.  About  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  there  sprang 
up,  in  some  towns  in  the  Netherlands,  societies  of  women, 
who  without  monastic  vows,  lived  together  under  rules 
of  their. own  adoption,  and  maintained  themselves  from 
their  own  property.  They  were  called  Beguinae.  Dur- 
ing the  thirteenth  century,  thejMucreased  in  France  and 
Germany,  as  well  as  in  the  Netherlands,  to  a  great 
number. 

iSimilar  societies  were  also  formed  of  men,  and  those 
who  belonged  to  them  were  called  Beguini,  orBeghards. 
Latterly  they  connected  themselves  with  the  tertiary 
orders  of  the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans. 

Through  the  mendicant  preaching  orders  and  their 
tertiaries,  the  cloister  opened  its  doors  to  the  world. 

12.  The  clergy  claimed  exemption  from  trial  by  civil 
tribunals,  and  the  popes  labored  zealously  to  withdraw 
them  altogether  from  secular  jurisdiction.  Oiily  ecclesi- 
astical courts  were  held  competent  to  try  them.  And 
from  all  tribunals  they  claimed  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
pope.     In  few  countries  were  those  claims  fully  realized. 

13.  From  various  causes,  great  weitlth  came  into  the 
hands  of  ecclesiastics,  leading  to  much  conflict  between 
the  spiritual  and  temporal  authorities. 

14.  In  the  course  of  the  twelfth  centur}',  the  Latin 
church,  in  administering  the  Eucharist,  gradually,  in  one 

^  place  after  another,  adopted  the  practice  of  withholding 
the  cup  from  the  laity.  Pope  Pascal  11.  opposed  innova- 
tion, and  ordered  that  the  bread  and  wine  should  be  both 
administered.  After  his  time,  the  opposite  opinion  gained 
ground.  By  the  Greek  church  the  sacramental  elements 
were  mingled. 

15.  Signs  of  intellectual  activity  began  to  appear 
among  the  people,  as  well  as  in  the  church  schools.  They 
consisted  chiefly  in  the  rise  of  religious  dissent,  and  of 
an  incipieiit  popular  literature. 

The  varieties  of  religious  dissent  may  be  classed 
under  the  heads  of  Paulicians,  Cathari,  Waldenses,  and 
independent  orders. 

16.  The  Paulicians,  in  their  long  persecution  in  the 


127 

ninth  century,  were  scattered  to  both  east  and  west,  be- 
yond the  bounds  of  the  Greek  empire.  At  the  end  of 
those  sufferings,  a  considerable  number  of  them,  were 
found  resident  among  the  Slavic  population  on  the  lower 
Danube.  Whence  it  is  probable  they  spread  their  doc- 
trines further  west,  and  in  more  tolerant  times  found 
their  way  back  into  the  empire.  In  the  reign  of  Alexius 
Comnenus  (1081-1118;  the  city  of  Philippopolis  in  Thrace 
was  entirely  under  their  influence.  Thatemperor  under- 
took to  convert  them  ;  and  removed  his  residence,  for  a 
time,  to  Philippopolis,  with  that  view.  By  force  of 
authority,  by  persuasion,  and  rewards  to  those  who  pro- 
fessed themselves  convinced  by  his  arguments,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  the  heresy  in  that  region.  But 
instead  of  it  another  arose.  For  a  long  time  before,  a 
party  had  existed  among  them,  called  Euchites,  or  Mes- 
salians,  who  had  exercised  some  infl.uence  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  Paulician  doctrine.  From  that  connection 
arose  theBogomili,  who  made  their  first  appearance  in 
the  latter  years  of  the  same  Emperor.  In  1116  Alexius 
obtained  the  confidence  of  their  leader  Basilins,  by  a 
treacherotis  artifice,  and  put  him  to  death.  But  the  sect 
maintained  its  ground  within  the  empire,  especially 
about  Philippopolis. 

17.  In  their  peculiar  doctrines  and  customs,  theBogo- 
mili agreed  closely  witli  those  of  the  Cathari  of  the  west 
of  Europe.  That  relationship  is  also  sustained  histori- 
cally. It  is  admitted  that  the  Cathari  proceeded  from  the 
Sclavonians  of  Bulgaria,  at  least  as  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  eleventh  century  :  and  had  extended  their  societies 
to  almost  every  country  of  Europe,  before  they  were  dis- 
covered. From  Bulgaria  tliey  spread  into  Thrace,  and 
became  a  large  sect  even  in  Constantinople.  Also  into 
Dalmatia  and  Albania,  where  they  were  called  Albanen- 
ses.  Westward  they  gained  converts  in  large  numbers, 
as  far  as  the  Netherlands,  England,  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy.  In  France,  they  were  frequently  called  the  Ordo 
BulgaricE,  or  Bidgari,  Gallicised  into  various  abbreviations. 
In  some  places  they  were  called  Poplicani,  Paiarini,  or 
Passacjleri.  They  divided  the  popular  faith  in  Provence 
with  the  Waldenses.  In  Lombardy  and  Florence,  in  the 
States  of  the  Church,  in   Calabria  and  Sicily,  Catharian 


128 

corio-reo^ations  existed  for  a  lonuj  time.  But  it  was  in 
Lombardy  and  the  South  of  France  where  they  were 
strongest.  The  Albigenses  were  both  Waldensian  and 
Catharian.  As  early  as  1022,  persons  of  Catharian  views 
were  burned  to  death  at  Orleans. 

18.  Touching  the  origin  of  the  Waldenses,  there  is 
difference  of  opinion.  But  we  know  that  they  are  men- 
tioned as  existing  among  the  Alps  in  the  twelfth  century, 
and  not  as  a  new  sect  at  that  time.  Their  name  is  not 
derived  from  that  of  a  man,  but  from  their  place  of  resi- 
dence in  certain  valleys  of  the  Cottian  Alps,  on  the  Italian 
side.  Their  eastern  border  is  about  thirty  miles  in  a 
southwest  direction  from  Turin.  Their  records  have  been 
sought  out  to  be  destroyed,  with  persevering  malignity 
hy  their  enemies. 

By  Catljolic  writers  their  doctrine^  were  greatly  mis- 
represented. But  more  favored  than  most  sects  of  that 
time,  they  survive  to  speak  for  themselves.  They  hold 
substantially  the  same  views  of  Scripture  truth  as  are 
held  by  Evangelical  Protestants. 

In  Northern  Italy,  Catharian  doctrine  together  with 
the  opinions  of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  coincided  with  the 
eiibrts  of  the  Lombards  to  wrest  their  freedom  from  the 
Pope  and  Emperor. 

19.  Among  dissenting  orders  we  must  include  the 
stricter  branch  of  the  Franciscans,  the  Fraticelli,  who 
opposed  as  firmly  as  any  others,  the  worldliness  and 
luxury  prevailing  in  the  church,  and  incurred  as  much 
persecution,  with  the  Beguinpe  and  Beghards,  and  Apos- 

'tolicals,  besides  certain  fanatical  orders,  which  were  early 
suppressed. 

20.  In  order  to  complete  the  work  of  exterminating 
heretics,  begun  with  such  fearful  scenes  of  bloodshed  in 
the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and  to  organize  a 
system  whereby  the  church  should  always  eradicate  the 
first  appearance  of  heresy,"  it  was  made  the  business  of 
the  Diocesan  Synods  to  search  out  and  punish  every  be- 
ginning of  divergence  from  the  faith  of  Rome.  Every 
archbishop  and  bishop  was  directed  to  visit,  either  per- 
sonally or  through  some  suitable  agent,  the  parish  of  his 
diocese,  in  which  any  heretics  were  reported  to  be,  and 
to  put  under  oath  any  of  the  inhabitants  whom  he  chose, 


129 

to  point  out  the  siispectecl.  Refusal  to  take  tbeoatbjas- 
tified  the  suspicion  of  heresy.  This  first  form  of  the 
Inquisition  was  the  plan  of  Innocent  III.,  and  enacted 
as  law  by  the  fourth  Lateran  council,  1215.  An  import- 
ant change  was  made  under  Gre<iory  IX.,  by  the  Council 
of  Toulouse,  in  1229,  whereby  the  task  was  taken  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  bishops,  by  the  appo}j)tment  of  Domini- 
can monks  to  be  permanent  inquisitors. 

21.  The  Holy  Scriptures  were  now  forbidden  to  the 
laity.  In  the  ancient  church  their  use  was  free  to  all,  and 
to  part  with  them  was  held  by  Christians  as  almost  equiv- 
alent to  denying  their  Savior.  But  in  the  lapse  of  ages, 
Catholic  practice  had  departed  so  fur  from  gospel  pre- 
cept, that  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  withhold  from  the 
people  the  means  of  comparing  them.  That  step  was 
first  til  ken  by  the  Greek  catholic  church  in  controversy 
with  tlie  Paulicians,  in  the  ninth  century.  In  the  west, 
it  was  ordered  by  Innocent  III.,  in  1199,  and  b}'  the 
council  of  Toulouse  in  1229. 

22.  It  was  in  that  belt  of  country  consisting  of  north- 
ern Italy,  southern  France,  and  the  north  of  Spain  that 
the  modern  languages  of  continental  Europe  were  first 
trained  to  the  service  of  literature.  That  early  literature 
consisted  chiefiy  of  songs;  called  lays,  and  sung  to  the 
accompaniment  of  the  harp  ;  and  those  who  composed 
them  were  Troubadours.  The  south  of  France  was  its 
centre,  and  its  headquarters  were  the  courts  of  the  counts 
of  Provence  and  of  Toulouse.  The  dialects  throughout 
that  belt  of  country  were  intimately  related.  From  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  the  Trou- 
badour literature  had  been  unfolded  towards  its  proper 
maturity.  The  twelfth  century  was  its  meridiari ;  and  it 
was  apparently  about  to  issue  in  something  greater,  when 
it  was  abruptly  terminated  by  the  crusade  against  the 
Albigenses.  A  modification  of  it  was  patronized,  until  a 
later  date,  at  the  court  of  Arragon,  and  by  some  of  the 
kings  of  Castile,  and  some  of  the  princes  in  northern 
Italy. 

23.  The  forms  of  that  style  of  popular  song  w^ere  trans- 
ferred to  the  Latin,  and  used  in  the  service  of  religion. 
Specimens  of  rhymed  Latin  verse  can  be  adduced  from 
earlier  time  ;  but  the  true  history  of  rhymed  Latin  hymns 


130 

begins  with  the  eleventh  century,  and  the  best  of  such 
productions  belong  to  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth. 

The  latest  lays  of  the  Troubadours  fell  upon  the 
youthful  ear  of  Dante,  who  deepl}^  imbued  with  their 
lyrical  spirit,  and  versed  in  the  Latin  hyranology  and  phi- 
losophy of  the  schoolmen,  concentrated  the  best  literary 
fruits  of  all  in  his  great  poem  the  Divina  Commedia,  and 
therein  the  history  of  modern  literature  began.  Dante 
was  in  his  prime  when  the  papal  court  was  removed  to 
Avignon. 

YIII.     1305—1418. 

Papal  Decline — Superiority  of  Councils — Revival 
OF  Learning. 

From  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth  was  the  period  of  mediaeval  growth, 
purely  and  characteristically  mediaeval.  The  fourteenth 
begins  to  present  some  features  of  the  modern  world. 
From  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  the  papacy  to  Avignon, 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  church  extends  until  the 
close  of  the  council  of  Constance,  that  is,  until  1418. 
The  period  thus  bounded  has  also  some  peculiar  features 
of  its  own.  Of  these  some  of  the  more  remarkable  are, 
the  declining  and  latterly  divided  state  of  the  papacy  ; 
secondly,  the  increase  of  dissent;  thirdly,  the  decline  of 
dialectic  scholasticism,  and  increase  of  mysticism  ; 
fourthly,  the  increasing  power  of  national  hierarchy  over 
the  papal ;  the  revival  of  classical  learning  and  taste,  and 
'sixthly,  the  rise  of  modern  literature  in  the  Italian,  Span- 
ish and  English  languages. 

1.  By  means  of  reducing  the  German  empire,  the 
popes  had  done  m.uch  to  liberate  the  cities  of  northern 
Italy,  and  to  build  up  the  growing  monarchy  of  France. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century,  France  had  no 
well  matched  rival,  amonglhe  monarchies  of  the  conti- 
nent, whom  the  popes  could  array  against  it.  At  Avig- 
non they  were  in  no  condition  to  assert  their  supremacy 
over  it.  In  some  of  the  measures  of  King  Philip,  as  in 
the  suppression  of  the  Knights  Templars,  Clement  V. 
was  constrained  reluctantly  to  concur.  Seven  Popes 
reigned  successively  in  Avignon,  before  the  schism,  that 


131 

is,  between  1305  and  1378,  Clement  V.,  John  XXIL, 
Benedict  XII  ,  Clement  VI.,  Innocent  VL,  Urban  V., 
and  Gre2;ory  XI. 

In  those  circumstances,  the  conflict  which  arose 
between  the  Popes  and  the  Emperpr  Louis  of  Bavaria 
was  really  more  to  the  interest  of  the  French  monarchy 
than  to  that  of  the  papacy.  The  people  of  Germany  now 
sustained  their  emperor,  and  Charles  IV.,  elected  through 
papal  means,  was  constrained  to  take  refuge  in  Fi-ance. 
The  interdict  was  laid  upon  Germany,  but  took  little 
effect.  When  Louis  died  in  1347,  Charles  had  to  regard 
his  former  election  invalid,  and  submit  to  be  elected  a 
second  time. 

In  1347  another  of  those  risings  took  place  in  Rome 
which  have  at  several  times  aimed  at  restoring  the  glories 
of  the  ancient  republic.  Nicholas  de  Rienzi,  by  liis  elo- 
quence and  enthusiasm,  made  himself  tribune  of  the 
people,  and  actually  governed  the  city  for  a  few  years. 
He  was  assassinated  in  1354,  and  the  whole  fabric  he  had 
erected  dissolved.  Cardinal  ^Egidins  Albornoz  recon- 
quered the  states  of  the  cliurch,  and  brought  them  back 
to  papal  obedience.  But  the  existence  of  an  antipapal 
party  in  the  papal  dominions  was  thereby  declared  with 
even  more  boldness  than  in  the  davs  of  Arnold  of  Brescia. 

Urban  V.,in  1367,  attemjited  to  remove  his  residence 
back  to  Rome.  Various  causes  were  now  making  that 
step  desirable.  England  liad  recovered  strens^th  under 
the  vigorous  rule  of  Edward  III.,  and  declined  payment 
of  the  required  submission  to  the  Pope,  and  of  the  tribute 
imposed  by  Innocent  III.  And  the  Pope's  position  in 
relation  to  France  went  to  justify  with  the  English  pub- 
lic the  acts  of  the  party  which  questioned  his  right  to 
interfere  in  their  national  attiiirs.  And  that  party  con- 
tained another  advocating  also  an  ecclesiastical  reform. 
After  thirty-three  years,  in  wdiich  the  tribute  had  not 
been  paid,  Urban  V.,  in  1365,  made  a  demand  upon  the 
King  for  it  with  all  the  arrears.  Edward  referred  the 
question  to  liis  parliament,  which  denied  the  validity  of 
the  papal  claim.  It  had  been  imposed  without  the  con- 
sent of  Parliament ;  and  was  therefore  unlawful.  That 
action  was  defended  by  a  learned  ecclesiastic  John  of 
Wyclitf.     The  victories  of  Edward  III.,  and  of  his   son 


132 

the  Prince  of  Wales,  had  reduced  the  Fi-ench  monarchy 
and  strijiped  it  of  nearly  half  its  dominions,  and  of  more 
than  half  its  power.  For  a  time  England  was  the  strong- 
est power  in  westerti  Europe.  The  Pope  had  purchased 
Avignon  ;  but  the  condition  of  his  estates  in  Italy  seemed 
to  demand  his  presence  there.  Urban  V.  removed  thither 
in  1367,  but  soon  returned  to  Avignon,  and  remained 
there  until  his  death.  During  his  pontificate  another 
effort  was  made,  in  compact  with  the  eastern  emperor, 
John  Palseologus,  to  connect  the  Greek  with  the  Latin 
church,  which  was  rejected  by  the  Greeks. 

Urban  V.  died  in  1370,  and  was  succeeded  on  the 
papal  throne  by  Gregory  XI.  Disorder  in  the  states  of 
the  church  continued  to  increase.  Gregory  became  full}^ 
convinced  that  at  all  hazards  he  ought  to  return  to 
Rome;  which  he  did  in  1377,  but  had  to  submit  to  open 
negotiations  with  his  enemies.  Peace  was  scarcely 
effected  at  his  death,  whicli  occurred  in  1378. 

The  cardinals  were  divided  in  opinion  on  the  subject 
of  returning  from  France.  Urban  VI.  was  elected  Pope 
on  the  9th  of  April,  1378  by  16  cardinals,  and  took  up 
his  residence  at  Home.  But  his  intolerable  temper  and 
bearing  soon  alienated  those  who  had  been  his  friends. 
When  they  resisted  him,  he  created  26  new  cardinals  to 
outvote  them.  Whereupon  all  but  one  of  those  who 
elected  him  throwing  themselves  into  the  interest  of  the 
French  party,  and  withdrawing  to  Fondi,  in  the  King- 
dom of  Naples,  elected  Robert  of  Geneva,  on  the  21st  of 
September  that  same  year.  The  new  Pope,  as  Clement 
V  II,,  resided  at  Avignon,  and  was  recognized  by  France, 
Spain,  Scotland,  Sicily  and  Cyinnis.  To  Urban  VI. 
adhered  Italy,  England,  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  In  this 
case  not  only  the  papacy  was  divided,  but  also  the  Latin 
church.  Each  of  the  two  Popes  held  his  ground  in  the 
hope  of  suppressing  the  other.  The  schism  gave  occa- 
sion to  great  increase  of  corruption,, and  disgraceful  exhi- 
bition of  animosity  between  tlie  parties  ;  and  both  main- 
tained their  respective  papal  lines  by  subsequent  elec- 
tions. At  Avignon  Clement  VII,  was,  in  1394,  followed 
by  Benedict  XIII.;  and  at  Rome,  in  1389,  Boniface  IX. 
succeeded  Urban  VI,  and  reigned  until  1404.  The  inter- 
val to  1406  was  filled  by  Innocent  VII.     Gregory  XIL 


133 

was  then  elected  and  continued  in  office  until  deposed  by 
the  council  of  Constance,  1415. 

These  papal  disputes,  in  which  the  parties  were  alwaj-s 
under  anathema  of  each  other,  were  felt,  in  inan}^  quar- 
ters, to  be  a  scandal,  and  demands  for  the  adoption  of 
some  measures  of  reform  became  numerous  and  impor- 
tunate. In  that  movement  the  univ^ersity  of  Paris  took 
the  lead.  But  in  England  and  Bohemia  there  were  par- 
ties more  radical  still,  who  talked  of  rejecting  the  papal 
yoke  altogether.  Both  Benedict  XIII.  and  Gregory 
XII.,  on  their  election,  promised  to  take  the  steps  neces- 
sary to  bring  the  schism  to  an  end  ;  but  both  declined  to 
abide  by  the  engagement.  In  1408,  their  respective 
councils  of  (!ardinals  abandoned  both  Popes  and  appeal- 
ing to  Christ,  a  general  council  and  a  future  pope,  assem- 
bled at  Leghorn.  Thence,  with  .advice  of  the  Univer- 
sities, they  issued  a  call  for  a  general  council  to  meet  at 
Pisa  in  1409.  In  that  council  there  were  24  cardinals  of 
both  papal  connections,  200  bishops,  300  abbots,  the  Uni- 
versities were  represented  by  120  Masters  in  Theology, 
and  300  graduates  of  civil  and  canon  law,  and  the  state, 
on  both  papal  interests,  by  the  envoys  of  France  and 
England.  The  council  took  the  ground  defended  by 
Gerson,  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  that  by  its 
constitution  under  Christ,  the  church  was  independent 
of  the  Pope,  and  acting  thereupon,  after  a  regular  fortn 
of  trial,  deposed  both  the  rival  Popes  for  violation  of 
their  solemn  obligation,  and  elected  a  new  candidate, 
Alexander  Y.,  to  Ibe  sole  Pope,  But  ofter  the  adjourn- 
ment''of  the  council,  Gregory  and  Benedict  both  denying 
its  validity  adhered  to  their  claims,  and  Alexander  could 
not  withdraw  from  his,  without  betraying  the  cause  of 
the  council.  And  so,  from  June  26,  1409,  there  were 
three  Popes,  all  regularly  elected,  according  to  one  or 
other  of  the  methods  which  had  at  different  periods  been 
accepted  as  valid  in  the  catholic  church, 

Alexander  V,  died  May  3,  1410,  and  John  XXIII. 
was  elected  in  his  stead  by  26  cardinals  at  Bologna,  within 
the  same  month.  Thus  the  Pope  of  Avignon,  though 
then  residing  in  Spain,  the  Pope  of  Rome,  and  the  Pope 
of  Bologna,  maintained  their  courts,  in  the  bitterest  hos- 
tility to  each  other,  for  seven  years. 


134 

Constrained  by  the  Emperor  Sigisniond,  the  Pope  of 
Boloijna,  John  XXIII.,  consented  to  convoke  a  council 
on  the  nortli  side  of  the  Alps  for  the  purpose  of  settling 
this  difficulty  and  of  meeting  generally  the  urgent  demand 
for  ecclesiastical  reform,  which  came  from  all  parts  of 
Latin  Christendom.  That  council  met  at  Constance  on 
the  5th  of  November,  1414,  Not  much  was  effected  for 
reform,  but  the  papal  schism  was  brought  to  an  end. 
All  three  Popes  were  deposed,  and  another  was  elected, 
who  took  the  name  of  Martin  V.  The  election  took 
place  on  the  11th  of  November,  1417,  Gregory's  resigna- 
tion had  been  secured  as  early  as  1415,  John,  who  insisted 
upon  retaining  the  portion  of  papal  dominion  which 
adhered  to  Inm,  w^^s  brought  to  trial  for  positive  crimes, 
thrown  into  prison  and  deposed.  Benedict,  in  exile,  was 
inaccessible,  and  although  dei)Osed  by  act  of  the  council, 
held  his  ground  tenaciously;  and  when  he  died  in  1424, 
two  Cardinals  set  up  a  successor  to  him,  as  Clement  VIII. 
The  new  antipope  resigned  in  1429,  and  thereby  the  great 
papal  schism  was  brought  to  an  end. 

During  that  period  of  division,  the  papal  list  follows 
the  RomaD  line,  until  1409.  It  then  passes  to  the  Pope 
set  up  by  the  council  of  Pisa  and  his  successor,  until  the 
deposition  of  John  XXIII.  May  29,  1415.  From  that 
date  there  is  no  Pope  recognized  as  true  until  the  elec- 
tion of  Martin  V.  November  11,  1417. 

The  council  of  Constance,  like  tiiat  of  Pisa,  was  con- 
stituted on  the  principle  that  a  council  of  bishops,  repre- 
,  senting  the  churcli  in  general,  is  independent  of  the 
Pope,  and  a  superior  authority.  The  members  adopted 
the  rule,  in  the  beginning,  that  they  should  vote  by 
nations,  whereby  a  check  was  applied  to  the  numerical 
majority  of  the  Italian  prelates.  The  nations  thus  repre- 
sented were  the  German,  the  Italian,  the  French,  the 
English,  and  the  Spanish ;  the  cardinals  constituted  a 
section  by  themselves. 

Inasmuch  as  John  XXIII.  was  deposed  by  that  coun- 
cil, and  Martin  V.  set  up  by  it,  and  accepted  as  a  true 
Pope  by  all  the  Latin  church,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
practically  the  council  was  admitted  to  be  lawfully  com- 
petent to  do  what  it  had  done,  and  therefore  was  a  higher 
power  than  the  Pope  ;  a  court  before  which  Popes  could 


135 

be  legally  tried.  And  if  that  is  true  of  the  council  of 
Constance,  it  must  be  true  of  any  council  so  constituted. 
All  later  popes  are  in  the  line  of  succession  from  Martin 
V. 

2.  Great  corruption  invaded  the  papal  court  at  Avig- 
non. The  guilt  of  simony  was  common.  Everything 
was  venal.  And  the  schism  instead  of  contracting  the 
extravagance,  doubled  it.  Popes  turned  the  revenues  of 
the  chuVch  to  the  account  of  their  own  ambition.  Fees 
were  exacted  of  prelates  upon  their  consecration;  from 
many  benefices  the  income  of  a  year,  call  Annates,  was 
exacted  by  the  Pope  before  a  new  incumbent  could 
receive  investiture  ;  and  taxes  were  levied  upon  the  pub- 
lic generally,  under  various  pretenses.  Money  was  also 
rais'ed  by  "sale  of  indulgences.  Papal  infiUlibility  had 
already  been  advocated  by  a  numerous  party,  but  was 
strongly  opposed  by  the  better  informed,  and  by  the 
church  in  general. 

3.  Episcopal  authority  was  fortified  by  the  division  of 
the  papal.  I)iflerent  countries  chose  their  own  papal 
allegiance.  Councils  became  of  greater  importance,  and 
freedom  of  opinion  obtained  a  certain  latitude.  Criticism 
of  at  least  one  Pope  was  always  safe.  Men  of  reading 
could  not  fail  to  compare  the  records  of  earlier  Christi- 
anity, with  what  was  taking  place  around  them.  The 
universities  were  almost  unanimous  in  their  demand  for 
reform,  and  the  public  generally  looked  for  it.  But  the 
heads  of  the  hierarchy,  to  whom  the  application  was 
made,  regarded  it  with  aversion. 

4.  Meanwhile  dissenting  sects  continued  to  increase. 
And  a  greater  number  without  dissenting  from  the  doc- 
trines of  the  church  were  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct 
of  her  clergy.  Iso  one  fact  appears  more  frequently  in 
the  literature  of  the  14th  century  than  this.  It  is  em- 
bodied in  the  most  terrific  passages  of  Dante,  it  is  expose^ 
in  the  letters  of  Petrarch,  and  the  tales  of  Boccacio,  it  is 
declared  in  various  forms  in  Chaucer,  and  in  the  poem 
called  the  visions  of  Piers  Plowman.  But  who  were  to 
be  the  reformers?  The  strength  of  the  medifeval  Puri- 
tans, the  Cathari,  was  broken  ;  the  Albigenses  were 
almost  extinguished.  ISToris  it  certain  that  they,  if  suc- 
cessful, would  have  made  the   reformation  which  was 


136 

mceded.  The  seat  of  dissent  was  removed  further  north, 
to  the  jSTetherlands,  to  Bohemia,  and  especially  to  Eng- 
land, where  it  found  a  leader  in  John  Wyeliff,  professor 
of  theology  in  the  university  of  Oxford. 

It  was  in  13l30,  when  he  was  a  fellow  of  Merton  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  that  W^'clift"  tirst  came  forward  as  the 
champion  of  the  university  in  dispute  with  the  mendicant 
monks.  In  1366  he  defended  the  King  and  Parliament 
in  rejecting  the  papal  demand  of  tribute.  He  was  made 
professor  of  theology  in  1372,  and  rector  of  Lutterworth 
in  1375.  He  was  accused  of  heresy  in  1376.  Gregory 
XI.  instituted  an  inquiry  against  him.  He  was  protected 
by  a  strong  party  among  the  nobility,  and  by  the  Duke 
of  Lancaster,  one  of  the  sons  of  Edward  III.  The  suc- 
ceeding papal  schism  furnished  an  occasion  of  which  he 
availed  himself  to  publish  scripture  truth  among  his 
countrymen.  His  pu[>iis,  whom  he  sent  on  that  work, 
he  furnished  with  the  true  evangelical  armor  in  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Scriptures.  In  1381  he  was  constrained  to 
leave  Oxford.  He  retired  to  his  parish  of  Lutterworth 
and  continued  his  work  of  translating  the  Bible,  and 
otherwise  carrying  forward  the  reformation  of  the  church, 
until  his  death  in"l384. 

The  followers  of  Wyeliff,  generally  called  Lollards, 
were  protected,  or  were  not  harrassed  during  the  reign 
of  Richard  II.  But  in  1399  Richard  was  constrained  to 
resign  by  Henry  of  Lancaster,  who  to  secure  the  throne 
he  had  usurped,  threw  himself  into  the  interest  of  the 
Papalists.  Parliament  in  1401  passed  a  law  that  persons 
'convicted  of  heresy  should  be  burned  to  death;  and 
executions  forthwith  began.  Still  within  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  the  papacy  was  in  a  divided  and  compara- 
tively feeble  condition.  It  recovered  in  the  time  of 
Henry  V.  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1413.  Then  was 
the  cause  of  reformation  persecuted  with  more  persistent 
cruelty.  Wyclifl"'s  doctrines  were  condemned  at  Con- 
stance, and  ten  years  later,  1428,  his  bones  were  taken 
out  of  the  grave  and  burned,  and  their  ashes  cast  into  a 
neighboring  brook.  But  the  doctrines  of  W^'cliff  were 
never  extinguished  in  England.  They  also  crossed  the 
sea  and  met  with  acceptance  in  Bohemia.  The  wife  of 
Richard   II.,  who  was   a   sister  of  Wenceslaus,  king   of 


137 

Bohemia,  partook  of  the  spirit  of  the  reformer.  Her 
life  as  Queen  of  England  was  such  as  to  sanction  the 
most  important  of  Wyclitf's  labors.  The  communica- 
tion thus  established  between  England  and  Boliemia 
greatly  promoted  the  interests  of  reformation  in  both 
countrie^\ 

Among  the  earliest  reformers  in  Bohemia  were  Con- 
rad of  Waldhausen,  pastor  in  Prague,  and  Milicz  of 
Kremsier.  Further  advance  was  made  by  Matthias  of 
of  Janow,  preacher  in  the  cathedral  church  of  Prague 
(d.  1394.)  John  Hus,  teacher  of  theology  at  Prague  fol- 
lowed their  example  by  taking  his  own  lessons  of  divine 
truth  from  the  Bible.  He  soon,  together  with  his  friend 
Jeiome  of  Prague,  stood  at  the  head  of  an  almost  national 
movement  of  reform,  whiclj  was  too  strong  to  allow  per- 
secution to  seriously  injure  them  at  Prague.  When  the 
council  met  at  Constance,  they  were  summoned  to  appear 
before  it.  Hus  went  under  a  letter  of  safe  conduct  from 
the  Emperor  Sigismond.  Notwithstanding,  he  was  con- 
demned by  the  council  and  burned  at  the  stake,  July  6, 
1415.  Jerome  suffered  the  same  fate  on  the  30th  of  May 
following. 

5.  During  tlie  14th  century  a  change  was  introduced 
into  the  philosophy  of  scholasticism  by  William  Occam, 
professor  of  theology  at  Paris  (d,  1347).  That  change 
consisted  in  a  new  style  of  nominalism,  according  to 
which  the  common  understanding  does  not  apprehend 
truth,  but  only  phenomena,  that  is,  not  general  princi- 
ples but  particularthings,  including formsof  expression  in 
language.  The  trutljs  of  doctrine  could  not  be  demon- 
strated pliilosophicall}'.  They  were  based  on  the  words 
of  Kevelation,  which  the  Holy  Spirit  continues  to  make 
to  the  church.  The  human  mind  knows  only  the  par- 
ticular; to  general  ideas  there  is  no  corresponding  objec- 
tive reality;  and  divine  truth  was  just  the  truths  of 
different  revelations.  But  consistently  with  the  growing 
system  of  Romish  dogma,  Occam  taught  that  revelations 
had  been  made  to  the  great  doctors  of  the  church  as  well 
as  to  the  apostles.  His  views,  after  a  bitter  controversy, 
prevailed  in  Paris  ;  but  were  rejected  at  the  university 
of  Prague.  In  the  violent  debates,  carried  on  through 
the   14th   century  between   Realists   and   Occamists,  the 


138 

greater  part  of  the  warfare  was  waged  within  the  doraaiii 
of  philosophical  notions  preliminary  to  theology. 

Other  eminent  scholastics  of  the  same  period  where 
Dnrand,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  (d.  1333)  Thomas  Bradwar- 
dine,  (d.  1346)  Arch-bishop  of  Canterbury  ;  Peter  A'Aiily 
(1425),  John  Charlier  de  Gcrson  of  the  university  of 
Paris,  (1375-1425), Nicholas  de  Clemangis,  (1440).  The 
writings  of  Gerson  and  some  of  his  contemporaries  give 
evidence  that  scholasticism  had  lost  its  power  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  human  mind. 

Biblical  learning  among  Christian  scholars  of  the 
west,  had  for  centuries  been  almost  confined  to  the  Latin 
version  used  in  the  church.  A  professorship  of  Oi'iental 
languages  was  established  by  Clement  V.,1311,  but  only 
for  the  instruction  of  missionaries.  Nicholas  de  Lyra, 
prof,  of  theology  in  Paris,  Cd.  1340)  was  the  only  man  of 
his  time  distinguished  by  a  knowledge  of  Hebrevr. 
Greek  scholarship  was  not  quite  so  rare. 

6.  It  was  in  the  14th  century  that  the  Mystics  carried 
their  doctrines  to  the  greatest  extreme,  and  to  a  positive 
antagonism  to  the  teaching  of  the  later  Scholastics.  A 
certain  class  of  them,  who  were  called  the  Friends  of 
God,  became  of  great  weight  among  the  reforming 
agencies  of  the  church,  especially  in  southwestern  Ger- 
many. God  they  believed  to  be  the  only  reality  ;  all 
finite  things  were  only  seeming.  This  view,  if  developed 
philosophically,  might  have  amounted  to  nothing  more 
than  a  commonplace  pantheism  ;  but  they  thought  only 
of  nearness  to  a  real  and  everywhere  present  God,  The 
^oul  of  man  must  separate  itself  from  the  finite,  as  Christ 
did,  that  it  may  become,  like  him,  a  son  of  God.  ,  This 
is  to  be  done  by  contemplation  upon  God,  and  renuncia- 
tion of  the  world.  They  also  lamented  the  corruptions 
of  the  church,  and  advocated  a  reform,  and  especially 
longed  for  a  spiritual  revival,  which  they  also  did  no 
little  to  promote.  Henry  Eckart  of  Strasburg,  who  lived 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  14th  cent.,  was  the  earliest  to 
advocate  this  doctrine.  It  was  zealously  accepted  by 
Nicholas  of  Basil,  from  1330,  who  believed  that  by 
ascetic  exercises  he  had,  through  visions  and  revelations, 
attained  to  a  complete  renunciation  of  the  world  and  of 
his  own  will,  and  to  an  intimate   communion  with  God. 


139 

Several  others  adopted  more  or  less  of  the  same  views, 
among  whom  John  Tauler,  a  Dominican  Monk,  became 
eminently  distinguished,  (d.  1361.)  To  the  same  reli- 
gious connection  belonged  Henry  Snso  of  Ulm,  Ruys- 
broek  of  Brussels  (d.  1381,),  thought  by  some  to  be  the 
author  of  the  Theologia  Germania.  The  succession  con- 
tinued through  the  fifteenth  century,  including  also  such 
men  as  Dr.  Gerson,  Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  several  who 
proceeded  from  the  school  of  Gerard  at  Deventer,  and 
whose  preaching  and  writings  were  eagerly  sought  after, 
greatly  to  the  increase  of  practical  piety,  until  as  a 
religious  revival,  their  work  merged  in  the  greater  one 
of  the  Reformation. 

The  mystics  were  not  limited  to  a  particular  order  of 
clergy,  or  class  of  society ;  thej-  were  of  all  classes. 
They  did  not  escape  the  persecution  which  was  levelled 
at  heretics.  Xot  a  few  suffered  death.  Nicolas  of  Basil 
was  burned  in  1382. 

The  theological  school  of  Gerard  Groot,  at  Deventer 
was  designed  to  promote  true  spiritual  attainments  in 
uniting  sound  knowledge  to  genuine  piety.  He  died  in 
1384.  Two  years  afterwards,  one  of  his  disciples  founded 
near  Zwoll,  a  chapter  of  regular  canons  with  a  similar 
purpose. 

The  rationalizing  scholastics,  as  distinguished  from 
the  mystics  were  subtle  dialecticians,  in  some  cases  elo- 
quent preachers,  and  in  more  they  were  laborious  writers, 
but  dealt  most  generally  with  the  superficies  and  forms 
of  thought,  mapping,  and  dividing  and  subdividing  the 
surface  of  that  concrete,  which  consisted  of  philosophy 
and  theology  and  practical  morals  and  religion  as  one 
science.  The  mystics  penetrated  deeper  into  the  human 
heart,  its  feelings,  its  hopes,  the  basis  of  its  faith,  and  its 
relations  with  the  unseen  world.  In  some  cases  the  style 
of  their  thinking  may  be  characterized  as  visionary  ;  but 
with  all  their  defects,  the  most  profoundly  exercised 
Christian  will  enjoy  their  writings  most,  finding  in  them 
much,  which  though  dialectics  could  never  expound,  he 
knows  to  be  true.  The  writings  of  Tauler  were  much 
esteemed  by  Luther,  and  the  Theologia  Germaniea^  and 
the  De  imitatione  Chrisd,  though  burdened  with  heavy 
faults,  have  been  cherished  by  the  pious  among  the  edu- 
cated, ever  since  the  days  of  their  publication. 


140 

7.  Another  feature  whicli  distinguishes  this  from  all 
other  periods  of  history,  is  tiie  revival  of  ancient  classi- 
cal literature  and  taste.  In  the  history  of  the  church, 
literary  art  is  a  matter  of  very  great  moment.  For  it  is 
the  medium  of  addressing  instruction  to  the  common 
mind.  Scholasticism  laid  no  claim  to  attractive  composi- 
tion. It  spoke  the  hinguage  of  students,  and  addressed 
students  alone.  It  knew  nothing  of  a  reading  populace, 
but  only  theologians.  Immediately  it  did  little  or  noth- 
ing for  iraiiroving  the  people.  Another  style  of  literary 
men  was  needed  to  execute  that  work.  And  such  a  class 
had  arisen,  men  who  employed  the  popular  dialects  in 
their  productions,  and  who  for  enlistiutr  of  public  atten- 
tion and  interest  relied  upon  those  principles  which  long 
ages  of  classical  experience  had  proved  the  best.  Their 
models,  and  guides  to  those  principles  were  the  best 
authors  of  classical  antiquity.  In  that  movement  the 
literature  of  modern  Europe  began.  Dante  ^vas  the 
transition  ;  his  Divina  Commedki  is  the  fruit  of  the  Mid- 
dle ages  as  to  its  substance  and  form;  but  his  poetic 
exemplar  was  Virgil.  But  the  true  reviver  of  classical 
taste  in  literature  was  Petrarch.  (1304-1374.)  In  that 
pursuit  he  was  early  joined  by  his  friend  and  pupil  Boc- 
cacio.  Zealously  did  they  both  labor  in  searching  out 
works  of  ancient  classical  authors  and  in  having  them 
copied  and  republished,  as  well  as  in  recommending  the 
study  of  them  to  others. 

Study  of  classical  Latin  naturally  led  also  to  the 
-Greek.  And  Greek  literary  men  fleeing  before  the 
advance  of  Turkish  conquest,  and  finding  refuge  in  Italy, 
furnished  those  progressive  scholars  with  Greek  teach- 
ers. The  work  thus  begun  was  taken  up  by  many  others, 
their  number  increasing  as  the  interest  and  richness  of 
the  rediscovered  mine  became  better  known. 

Under  the  force  of  classical  example,  some  of  the 
modern  languages,  first  of  all  the  Italian,  and  then  the 
English,  beijan  to  assume  the  disunity  of  letters.  And 
popular  treatment  of  interesting  topics  took  a  wider 
range.  The  author  of  Piers  Plowman,  Mandeville, 
Chaucer,  Wycliflt',  Gower  and  Barbour,  in  Great  Britain, 
were  the  contemporaries  of  Petrarch  and  Boccacio,  in 
Italy.     And  Wyclifl:*,  Chaucer,  and  the  author  of  Piers 


141 

Plowman  were  all  advocates  of  ecclesiastical  reform. 
English  literature  opened  in  the  most  important  and  suc- 
cessful effort  for  reformation  made  in  the  14th  century. 

In  Germany,  the  Minnesingers  of  the  13th  century 
had  given  way  to  a  class  of  poets  called  Master-singers, 
who  organized  themselves  into  societies  for  the  purpose 
of  promoting  their  art.  But  their  rules  were  unpro- 
ductive of  any  great  work  capable  of  standing  the  test 
of  time. 

Neither  did  French  literature  advance  as  might  have 
been  expected.  In  the  south,  the  Troubadours  suffered 
with  the  Albigenses.  In  the  north  the  Trouvere  litera- 
ture existed  chiefly  among  the  Normans.  And  those 
who  produced  it,  after  the  pacification  of  England,  made 
that  country  their  principal  residence.  The  best  works 
of  the  Trouveres,  though  in  the  language  of  northern 
France,  were  written  in  England.  Civil  war  and  foreign 
invasion  also  stood  in  the  way  of  any  literary  culture, 
which  may  have  been  incipient  among  the  people. 

Italy  and  England  were,  in  respect  to  vernacular  liter- 
ature, greatl}^  in  advance  of  all  other  nations.  The 
English  took  the  bent  of  religious  reform  ;  the  Italian 
that  of  art. 

8.  The  eastern  empire  was  now  contracted  to  a  small 
space,  and  that  continually  threatened  by  the  new  power 
of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Many  earnest  attempts  were 
made  by  the  Greek  Emperors  to  re-unite  the  eastern  and 
western  churches,  with  the  view  of  securing  aid  from  the 
nations  of  the  west.  But  every  such  plan  was  defeated 
by  the  unbending  tenacity  with  which  both  parties  held 
to  their  doctrines  and  practices,  and  rejected  those  of  the 
other.  Such  was  that  of  Andronicus  III.  Pal?eologus, 
in  1333  ;  and  of  John  V.  Palreologus,  who  in  1356,  went 
the  length  of  swearing  allegiance  to  the  Pope  ;  but  with- 
out inducing  his  Greek  subjects  to  follow  his  example. 
Controversy,  and  consequent  alienation  between  the  two 
churches,  was  rather  increased  by  agitating  the  question 
of  union. 

In  1367  Armenia  was  conquered  by  the  Mamelukes. 
Such  fate  also  befell  the  Coptic  Christians  in  Egypt. 
And  the  churches  in  both  countries  were  subjected  to  a 
cruel  oppression. 


142 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  north,  there  was,  gradually 
emancipating  itself  from  foreign  domination,  a  power 
destined  in  the  course  of  ages  to  become  the  successful 
champion  of  the  Greek  church  to  the  ends  of  the  earth. 
But  at  that  time,  Russia  was  still  struggling  for  existence 
in  war  with  the  Mongul. 

IX.     1418—1517. 

Progress  OF  the  Revival  of  Learning — Revival  of 
Religion — of  the  Study  of  Scripture — of  Preaching. 

The  various  reform  movements  which  took  their  rise, 
or  emerged  into  notice  in  the  14th  century,  continued  to 
make  progress  in  the  period  which  opened  in  the  last 
weeks  of  the  council  of  Constance,  and  closed  with  the 
publication  of  Luther's  Theses,  in  1517.  Of  that  section 
of  history  in  Europe  one  of  the  most  important  features 
is  in  the  progress  of  the  spirit  of  reform  among  the  com- 
mon people  and  the  lower  clergy,  and  the  increase  of 
Scriptural  knowledge  and  general  intelligence  with  which 
it  was  conducted.  A  second  was  the  restored  unity  of 
the  Papacy,  and  accelerated  moral  degeneracy  of  the 
Popes.  A  third  was  the  question  of  the  authority  of 
councils  over  the  Papacy  and  the  church.  A  fourth,  the 
continued  decliue,  and  final  submersion  of  scholasticism, 
and  the  rapid  growth  of  classical  learning  and  popular 
literature.  A  fifth,  the  invention  of  printing.  A  sixth 
the  maturity  of  Italian  art.  And  a  seventh  must  be 
,  added  consisting  of  several  remarkable  events,  which 
combined  to  change  in  an  important  degree  the  habits  of 
industry  and  the  channels  of  enterprise. 

1.  On  the  11th  of  JS'ovember  1417,  the  council  of  Con- 
stance elected  Otto  Colonna  Pope,  under  the  name  of 
Martin  V.  He  was  acknowledged  by  all  the  nations,  the 
first  sole  Pope  in  forty  years.  The  council  immediately 
lost  its  importance;  and  after  having  appointed  a  suc- 
cession of  general  councils  to  keep  supervision  over  tlie 
the  interests  of  the  church,  it  terminated  its  own  ses- 
sions, on  the  22nd  of  April  1418. 

The  first  in  that  succession  of  councils  was  appointed 
to  meet  at  Pavia,  in  1423.  By  the  Pope  it  was  diverted 
to  Sienna,  and  then  dissolved,  before   it  had  transacted 


143 

any  business.     The  next,  appointed  to  meet  seven  years 
later,  assembled  at  Basil,  Dec.  14,  1431. 

Martin  V.  died  in  February  of  that  year,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Eugenius  IV.,  elected  by  the  Cardinals. 

The  council  of  Basil  entered  earnestly  into  the 
attempt  to  reform  the  church.  In  its  first  years  the  Pope 
was  constrained  to  yield  on  all  points.  Some  serious 
abuses  were  condemned  and  abolished,  Papal  preroga- 
tives and  revenue  were  seriously  threatened.  Eugenius, 
in  order  to  exercise  the  more  control  over  its  proceed- 
ings, issued  a  bull,  ordering  the  council  to  remove  to 
Ferrara.  Some  bishops  complied,  but  the  greater  num- 
ber remained  at  Basil.  Unfortunately,  they  passed  sen- 
tence of  deposition  upon  Eugenius,  and  elected  Amadeus 
VIII.  of  Savoy  in  his  stead,  as  Felix  V.  This  introduc- 
tion of  a  new  schism,  so  soon  after  the  church  had,  with 
much  trouble,  composed  the  disorders  belonging  to  the 
former,  prejudiced  the  cause  of  the  council.  Some  of 
the  members,  in  dissatisfaction,  returned  home,  and  after 
the  month  of  May  1443,  the  council  gradually  fell  apart. 
In  1148  it  removed  to  Lausanne,  and  dissolved  next  year. 
Felix  V.  had  nlread}^  resigned. 

During  the  early  days  of  that  council,  while  it  was 
yet  a  real  power,  occasion  was  taken  to  revive  the  ancient 
liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church,  and  to  extend  and  define 
them.  France  was  then  in  one  of  her  lowest  periods  of 
adversity,  and  the  English  were  still  in  possession  of  Paris, 
when  Charles  VII.,  on  the  7th  of  July  1437  executed  the 
Pragmatic  sanction  of  Bourges,  by  which  he  accpted  the 
decisions  of  the  council  of  Basil.  They  continued  to  be 
law  in  France  until  December.  1513,  when  Francis  I. 
sacrificed  them  to  his  concordat  with  the  Pope. 

Eugenius  lA-^.  persistently  labored  to  undo  the  reform- 
ing acts  of  the  council,  and  had  some  reason  to  be  grati- 
fied with  the  degree  of  his  success.  Where  he  could 
not  prevent  their  acceptance,  he  succeeded  in  embarrass- 
ing their  operation,  and  on  his  death  bed  received, 
through  her  ambassadors  the  returning  allegiance  of  Ger- 
many. 

Meanwhile,  at  the  Pope's  council  in  Ferrara,  and  later 
in  Florence,  the  principal  event  was  another  show  of 
union    with   the   Greek   church ;  of  all  such    the    most 


144 

deceitful  and  humiliating  to  those  concerned.  The 
emperor  John  VII.,  Pahneologus,  reduced  to  the  last 
extremity  by  aggression  of  the  Turks,  and  the  Pope  striv- 
ing to  counteract  the  council  of  Basil,  agreed  in  earnestly 
desiring  the  union  ;  the  former,  in  hope  that  western 
arms  might  thereby  be  brought  to  the  aid  of  his  own  in 
repelling  the  Mohammedan  ;  and  the  latter,  believing 
that  the  weight  of  such  a  vast  addition  to  his  jurisdic- 
tion would  enable  him  to  overmatch  his  opponents,  if 
not  to  overwhelm  them  by  the  torrent  of  a  crusade.  In 
Papal  ships,  and  partly  with  Papal  money,  the  impov- 
erished emperor  left  Constantinople  accompanied  by  the 
Patriarch  and  a  number  of  Greek  prelates.  They  were 
received  with  pomp  and  adulation  at  Venice,  and  after- 
wards at  Ferrara.  But  the  meetings  of  the  council  were 
thinly  attended  and  business  was  delayed.  After  about 
two  years,  and  after  the  removal  to  Florence,  the  act  of 
union  was  passed.  It  was  one.  in  which  the  necessities 
of  the  Greeks  constrained  them  to  yield  enough  to  ren- 
der the  whole  unavailing.  They  returned  home  to 
encounter  a  storm  of  disapproval.  Their  action  was 
utterly  rejected.  A  respectable  minority  of  them, 
with  Mark  i>ishop  of  Ephesus  at  their  head,  had  dissented 
from  everything  at  variance  with  Greek  orthodoxy. 
They  were  now  the  national  heroes.  Many  of  the  major- 
ity regretted  the  part  they  had  taken  in  the  affair,  and 
expressed  their  repentance  in  terms  of  profound  contri- 
tion. The  emperor,  in  attempting  to  save  his  country, 
had  lost  its  confidence  and  support,  and  was  denounced 
as  a  traitor  to  its  most  sacred  cause.  The  pompously 
constructed  union  proved  a  nullity.  As  a  constrained 
attempt  at  compromise,  its  statements  of  doctrine  are  of 
little  value,  as  touching  the  real  faith  of  the  Greek 
church. 

Upon  the  death  of  Eugenius  IV.,  Feb.  7,  1447,  Nico- 
las V.  succeeded,  without  any  reference  to  the  antipope. 
Nicolas  pursued  the  policy  of  his  predecessors,  in  respect 
to  the  authority  of  his  office,  but  was  a  man  of  superior 
liberality  in  other  respects,  and  an  eminent  patron  of 
literature  and  learning.  Upon  the  fall  of  Constantino- 
ple, he  issued  a  summons  for  a  Crusade.  But  the  time 
for  such  enterprises  had  passed.     None  responded  to  the 


145 

call.  But  the  Papal  troasiiry  gained  by  collections  of 
money  for  the  purpose. 

Calixtus  III.,  who  succeeded  Nicolas,  (1455-1468) 
adopted  the  same  device  for  raising  money,  but  created 
thereby  much  dissatisfaction,  especially  in  Germany,  and 
indirectly  strengthened  the  hands  of  the  reforming  party. 

^nea3  Sylvius,  a  former  adherent  of  the  council  of 
Basil,  was  elected  Pope,  under  the  name  of  Pius  II.,  and 
turned  out  as  high  toned  a  defender  of  Papal  prerogative 
as  any  of  his  predecessors.  He  also  tried  to  organize  a 
crusade  ;  but  no  popular  interest  could  be  aroused  in  the 
cause.  His  successor,  Paul  II.  in  a  pontificate  of  seven 
years,  succeeded  in  making  himself  generally  hated 
without  accomplishing  anything  of  inportance. 

The  succeeding  popes  of  this  period  were  men  of 
such  character  that  it  is  amazing  how  they  ever  obtained 
election  to  any  ecclesiastical  office  whatever,  iSixtus  IV., 
(1471-1484),  although  a  man  of  public  spirit,  who 
enlarged  the  Pajjal  library,  and  executed  several  improve- 
ments in  the  city  of  Rome,  spent  most  of  his  time  in 
measures  to  enrich  himself  and  his  kindred,  and  in  petty 
Italian  wars.  Those  who  praise  him  boast  that  "  no 
Prince  ever  ofi'ered  him  an  injury,  or  indignity  which 
he  did  not  return  with  due  revenge."  Of  Innocent 
VIII. ,  (1484-1492)  the  principal  facts  recorded  are  his 
quarrels  with  l^'erdinand  of  Aragon  and  Naples,  and  his 
rapacity  in  providing  for  his  own  illegitimate  children, 

Alexander  VI.  (1492-1503)  may  be  said  to  have 
sounded  the  lowest  depths  of  profligacy.  He  and  his 
children  have  rendered  their  family  name,  Borgia,  noto- 
rious in  the  annals  of  crime.  He  died  from  taking  by 
mistake  the  poison,  which  he  or  his  son  C?esar  had  pre- 
pared for  others.  Pius  III.  reigned  only  a  few  days. 
Julius  II.  (1503-1513)  was  more  of  a  soldier  than  a 
minister  of  religion.  As  a  man,  profane  and  blasphem- 
ous, as  a  prince,  taking  dehght  in  war,  he  sacrificed 
thousands  to  his  ambition,  "  and  by  his  other  enormities 
rendered  his  name  odious  to  posterity."  Within  his 
pontificate,  a  general  council  was  summoned  at  Pisa,  by 
the  Emperor  and  the  King  of  France,  It  met  in  Septem- 
ber, 1511,  for  the  pui-pose  of  once  more  attempting  some 
reform  of  the  generally  admitted  abuses  in  the  church. 


146 

Julius,  to  counteract  it,  convoked  a  Lateran  council  to 
meet  in  April  of  the  next  year.  The  council  of  Pisa 
effected  nothing  towards  the  end  for  which  it  was  called, 
and  the  emperor  Maximilian  gave  in  his  adherence  to 
Julius  and  the  Lateran  council,  which  was  not  intended  to 
reform  anything.  Julius  died  amid  plans  for  a  league  to 
carry  a  ruinous  war  into  France.  In  1513,  Leo  X.  of 
the  illustrious  de  Medici  of  Florence,  succeeded  Julius, 
and  restored  at  least  a  decent  decorum  to  the  papal  court. 
Leo  X.,  had  little  claim  to  the  character  of  a  christian, 
but  he  was  refined  in  his  tastes,  elegant  in  his  pleasures, 
and  an  eminent  patron  of  the  fine  arts.  His  first  few 
3'ear8  restored,  to  all  appearance,  the  full  harmony  of  the 
Papacy  with  the  secular  powers.  Accordingly  he  could 
go  on  to  gratify  his  taste  for  the  grand  and  beautiful  in 
art.  The  new  cathedral  of  St.  Peter's  was  his  favorite 
enterprise;  and  money  was  to  be  collected  for  its  com- 
pletion by  all  available  devices. 

2.  During  the  whole  of  this  period,  the  opposing  cur- 
rents of  events  continued  to  advance  with  increasing 
rapirlity  :  on  one  side,  the  practice  of  old  abuses,  and 
reckless  development  of  their  consequences;  on  the 
other,  the  efltbrt  to  obtain  some  correction  of  them,  though 
often  defeated,  \vas  becoming  better  sustained  by  force 
and  intelligence. 

Restoration  of  papal  unity  brought  with  it  the  idea 
of  restoring  every  thing  to  the  standard  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Practices  and  dogmas  to  which  the  one  party 
.objected,  were  set  forth  by  the  other  in  a  bolder,  and 
sometimes  most  reprehensible  manner.  Transubstantia- 
tion  was  urged  in  its  grossest  extreme  ;  adoration  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  received  additions,  belief  in  her  immaculate 
conception  continued  to  gain  ground;  the  rosary  system- 
atized the  vain  repetition  of  prayer  addressed  to  her, 
and  her  house  removed  from  Nazareth  to  Italy  became 
the  holy  shrine  of  Loretto.  Indulgences  had  been  a 
saleable  commodity  for  ages,  but  the  traffic  in  them  was 
now  pushed  to  an  unprecedented  extent,  especially  by 
Dominican  monks. 

The  principle  upon  which  indulgences  were  justified 
was  invented  by  the  schoolmen  out  of  pre-existing  Rom- 
ish practices,  the  granting  of  absolution  by  priests,  belief 


147 

in  purgatory,  and  the  necessity  of  good  works  in  order 
to  salvation,  the  merits  of  saints,  and  the  Papal  powei- 
of  the  keys.  The  doctrines  rationally  accounting  for 
these,  and  for  practices  springing  out  of  them,  were 
elaborated  chiefly  by  Albertus  Magnus,  and  Alexander 
Hales,  and  most  of  all,  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  whose  doc- 
trine was  retained  unaltered  by  the  council  of  Trent. 

The  merits  of  Christ  atone  for  original  sin,  and  secure 
ultimately  eternal  happiness  for  all  true  Catholics.  But 
the  individual  believer  must  account  for  his  own  actual 
sins  bj"  good  works,  or  penances.  If  deficient  in  these 
latter,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  he  must  suffer  the  ade 
quate  amount  in  Purgatory.  When  by  that  proportion 
of  suffering  his  soul  has  been  purified,  it  ascends,  in 
regular  order,  to  Paradise.  But  it  may  take  thousands 
of  years  to  reach  that  consummation.  Most  men  come 
greatly  short  of  the  necessary  amount  of  merit,  and  have 
to  suffer  long.  The  saints  happily  have  accumulated 
more  than  enough  for  their  own  use.  The  surplus  is  laid 
up  in  store;  and  from  it  can  be  drawn  what  is  needed 
for  the  lack  of  imperfect  souls.  And  the  Pope,  by  his 
power  as  vicar  of  Chi'ist,  can,  for  sufficient  reasons,  grant 
to  the  faithful,  whether  in  this  life  or  in  Purgatory, 
indulgences  out  of  that  superabundance  of  the  merits  of 
Christ  and  of  the  saints.  Where  the  Pope  is  not  him- 
self present,  that  favor  can  be  extended  through  his 
properlj'  commissioned  agents,  and  by  means  of  a  written 
paper  properly  signed  and  sealed.  "  Those  wdio  have 
obtained  such  indulgences  are  released  from  so  much  of 
the  temporal  punishment  due  for  their  actual  sins  to  the 
divine  justice,  as  is  equivalent  to  the  indulgence  granted 
and  obtained."  Temporal  punishment  means  punish- 
ment in  this  life,  or  in  Purgatory. 

Such  w^ere  the  documents  now  multiplied  enormoiislj^ 
and  offered  for  sale,  carried  into  various  countries  and 
recommended  to  purchasers,  in  some  places  quietly,  in 
others  loudly  and  publiclj',  as  peddlers  vend  their  wares. 
And  the  plea  for  such  activity  in  the  traffic  was,  in  some 
quarters  put  forth  openly,  to  raise  money  to  complete 
the  church  of  St.  Peter's.  Such  was  the  style  in  which 
things  were  conducted  by  the  leaders  of  one  party,  which 
might  be  called  the  conservatist  of  that  time. 


148 

With  such  facilities  for  obtaining  pardon  of  sin,  or 
indulgence  in  it,  with  such  example  as  that  produced 
among  the  clergy  by  celibacy  enforced  and  concubinage 
freely  connived  at,  what  was  to  be  expected  of  practical 
morals  among  the  laity  ?  No  period  in  the  history  of 
Christendom  bears  a  deeper  brand  of  moral  license  than 
the  fifteenth  century,  and  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth. 

Circulation  of  the  scriptures  among  the  people  in  a 
language  they  could  understand  was  prohibited,  and 
actually  prevented  as  far  as  the  hierarchy  could  carry 
their  purpose  into  effect.  Church  service  was  in  Latin, 
of  which  the  people  did  not  now  understand  one  sen- 
tence. Singing  in  Church  had  long  ago  been  taken  out 
of  the  mouths  of  the  congregations  and  committed  to 
choirs  of  priests;  and  what  thej'  sang,  or  chanted  was 
also  in  a  dead  language. 

Preaching  as  revived  by  the  mendicant  monks  had 
not  proved  of  the  effect  intended.  It  had  not  converted 
the  dissenting  sects,  nor  done  much  for  general  edifica- 
tion. The  sermons  of  the  monks  were  in  the  vernacular 
tongues;  but  most  commonly  consisted  of  legends  of 
saints,  commendations  of  indulgences,  or  of  some  super- 
stitious practice. 

To  engage  and  occupy  the  increasing  activity  of  intel- 
lect, various  devices  were  emploj-ed,  some  of  them  the 
fruit  of  that  activity  itself.  Such  were  the  dramatic 
entertainments,  called  Mj'steries,  Miracle  Plays,  and 
Moralities,  exhibited  in  the  churches,  which  commenced 
^t  a  much  earlier  time,  increased  in  number  and  impor- 
tance in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  period  scholasticism  proper 
reached  its  termination.  The  m.ost  complete  and  copious 
treatise  on  Theology  produced  in  the  15th  century  was 
the  Summa  Theologica  of  Antoninus,  printed  at  ISTurem- 
burg  in  1479,  twenty  3'ears  after  the  author's  death. 
And  the  last  of  the  scholastics  whom  History  may  be 
concerned  to  record,  was  Gabriel  Biel  of  Tubingen,  who 
died  in  1495.  Still,  the  peculiar  style  of  their  disquisi- 
tions lingered  long  in  some  branches  of  study  in  the 
universities  ;  and  only  gradually  gave  way  before  the 
advance  of  a  more  discrete  philosophy. 

3.  On  the  other  hand,  the  movement  in  the  direction 


149 

of  reform  was  proceeding;  by  various  channels.  The 
restoration  of  classical  learnino;  continued  to  advance. 
Upon  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  many  learned  Greeks 
took  refuge  in  the  West,  where  they  maintained  them- 
selves by  teaching  their  native  tongue.  With  the  pro- 
gress of  Greek  scholarship,  the  philosophy  of  Plato  was 
revived.  The  illustrious  Cosmo  de  Medici  founded  a 
Platonic  school  at  Florence.  Help  was  thereby  brought 
to  the  study  of  art,  and  a  rival  set  up  to  scholasticism. 
B37  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  Latin  was  once  more 
written  in  classical  purity,  and  the  best  Greek  authors 
were  familiar  to  the  scholars  of  the  west.  It  was  inevi- 
table that  the  original  Greek  text  of  the  Scriptures  should 
receive  a  large  share  of  attention.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century  the  Greek  New  Testament  was  one  of 
the  most  saleable  books. 

The  arts  of  painting,  sculpture  and  architecture  had 
grown  up  with  reviving  literature.  Gothic  architecture, 
like  the  poetry  of  Dante,  was  a  fruit  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  reached  its  prime  in  the  14th  century,  but  the 
revival  of  learning  rekindled  a  taste  for  the  Roman.  In 
the  15th  century,  Italy  saw  a  great  many  buildings  of 
that  style  erected.  And  greatest  of  all,  the  new  St. 
Peter's  was  slowly  rising  from  its  foundations.  It  had 
been  commenced  by  Nicolas  V.,  in  1450.  But  although 
carried  forward  by  architects  of  the  highest  talent,  and 
with  great  expenditure  of  money,  was,  in  the  time  of 
Leo  X.  far  from  complete.  It  was  not  finished  until  one 
hundred  years  later  (1614).  At  the  opening  of  the  16th 
century  the  excellence  and  renown  of  her  arts  absorbed 
the  pride,  and  the  best  energies  of  Italy.  In  this  respect, 
her  example  was  followed  in  the  Netherlands  and  some 
places  in  Germany.  France  and  England  were  inter- 
rupted in  their  better  progress  by  the  wars  with  each 
other,  and  by  the  civil  broils  which  long  distracted  them 
both. 

Within  the  same  period  the  christian  Spaniards  suc- 
ceeded in  finally  expelling  the  Moors  from  Granada 
(1492).  The  Portuguese  had  driven  them  from  their  part 
of  the  Peninsula,  at  an  earlier  date,  and  extended  their 
conquests  to  Africa.  The  mariner's  compass  had  been 
introduced  some  time  before.     It  was  now  employed  by 


150 

daring  Portuguese  sailors,  in  explorations  of  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  off  the  African  coast,  until  by  successive  attempts 
they  ultimately  rounded  the  Cajjc  of  Good  Hope,  and 
sailed  to  India,  (1498)  ;  while  Columbus,  in  the  service 
of  Spain,  with  a  still  bolder  daring,  launched  directly 
across  the  ocean  and  reached  America  in  1492.  A  new 
route  was  thus  opened  to  India,  and  a  productive  trade 
reopened,  which  for  centuries  had  been  obstructed  by  the 
conquests  of  the  Turks  ;  and  a  new  continent  discovered. 
The  commerce  of  the  world  was  turned  to  the  paths  of 
the  ocean.  The  countries  on  the  Atlantic  coast  rose  in 
importance,  while  those  on  the  Mediterrranean  declined  : 
a  change  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  great  ecclesi- 
astical controversy  about  to  ensue. 

The  difference  of  exposure  between  the  mailclad 
knight  and  his  peasantry  on  the  battle  field  was  almost 
annihilated  by  the  discovery  of  gunpowder,  and  its  appli- 
cation to  Vv^ar ;  a  change  the  moral  effects  of  which  are 
not  easily  computed.  It  became  impossible  to  hold  as 
serfs  men  in  whose  hands  were  the  military  fortunes  of 
their  nation,  when  increasing  intelligence  hiid  sufficiently 
informed  them  of  their  importance.  And  when  they 
also  became  enlightened  by  the  gospel,  their  conscious- 
ness of  power  blended  with  Christian  heroism. 

The  new,  or  revived  arts  were,  in  the  first  instance, 
exercised  in  the  service  of  the  Romish  church.  The 
only  exception  was  that  of  pi-inting,  which  from  the  first, 
was  an  agent  of  progress,  on  whatever  side  of  the  con- 
^troversy  it  wrought.  Its  earliest  productions  were  exe- 
cuted before  the  middle  of  the  15th  century.  And  in 
the  next  sixty  or  seventy  years  the  book  upon  which  its 
labors  were  chiefly  employed  was  the  Bible.  It  was  the 
first  book  of  any  importance  printed  with  moveable  metal 
types,  by  Faust  and  Gutteuberg,  at  Mayence  between 
1450  and  1455.  Several  editions  of  the  Vulgate  followed 
each  other  at  no  great  intervals.  And  many  translations 
made  from  the  Latin  into  the  modern  languages  were 
printed  before  the  end  of  that  century.  Hebrew  scholar- 
ship had  also  commenced  its  career  among  christians  of 
the  west,  and  two  editions  of  the  whole  Hebrew  Bible 
were  printed  within  the  same  time,  one  at  Soncino  in 
in  1488,  and  the  other  at  Brescia  in   1494.     And  by  the 


151 

year  1517  the  Complutensian  Polyglot  was  finished,  and 
printed  at  Alcala  in  Spain. 

4,  After  all,  the  main  stream  of  improvement,  which 
carried  all  these  agencies  along  with  it,  and  made  its  own 
benign  uses  of  them,  was  the  increasing  interest  in  evan- 
gelical religion.  The  influences  set  in  activity  by  the 
mystic  preachers,  not  so  much  from  their  theory  of  faith, 
as  in  that  they  preached  Christ,  operated  in  that  direc- 
tion within  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Such, 
likewise,  was  the  moderate  mystic,  or  more  properly, 
spiritual  piety,  tinged  with  monasticism,  which  perpetu- 
ated itself  from  the  scliool  of  Gerard,  through  the 
Brethren  of  the  common  life,  and  the  canons  of  Mount 
St.  Agnes  at  Zwoll.  But  head  and  front  of  all  was  the 
great  dissenting  movement  which,  commenced  in  Eng- 
land, was  now  most  conspicuous  in  Bohemia  and  Mora- 
via, where  in  the  face  of  persecution,  the  leformers  organ- 
ized themselves  for  defence,  and  under  their  brave  and 
gifted  leader,  Ziska,  held  their  ground  against  the 
Emperor,  in  successful  war,  for  many  years.  Finally 
their  enemies  succeeded  in  dividing  them  by  oflfering  a 
compromise,  which  only  a  part  of  their  number  could 
accept.  Those  who  submitted,  called  Caliztines,  because 
the  restoration  of  the  cup  in  the  Eucharist  was  one  of 
the  conditions  of  the  compromise,  finding  that  the  con- 
ditions were  not  complied  with,  on  the  part  of  the  Catho- 
lics, returned  in  considerable  numbers  and  reunited  with 
the  uncompromising  party,  wlio  were  called  Taborites, 
and  formed  with  them  the  covenant  of  the  Unitas  Fra- 
trum.  About  1470  thej-  published  a  translation  of  the 
Bible  in  the  Bohemian  language  ;  and  sent  commission- 
ers into  various  countries  to  inquire  into  the  state  of 
religion.  About  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  they 
had  still  some  two  hundred  congregations,  b}^  whom 
fraternal  relations  had  been  established  with  the  Wal- 
denses. 

In  Spain  and  Italy  also  voices  were  raised  in  advocacy 
of  reformation  ;  but  Papal  authority  was  too  near  in  any 
part  of  the  latter  country,  and  the  inquisition  most  unre- 
lenting in  the  otlier. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  monarchy  was 
in  the  ascendant.     England,  France,  Spain  were  at  last 


152 

completely  consolidated — each  one  around  its  own  regal 
centre;  and  the  German  empire  was  stronger  than  it 
had  been  since  the  downfall  of  the  Hohenstanfen. 

The  civil  rulers  no  longer  admitted  that  they  were 
subordinate  to  the  Pope  in  temporal  things.  But  Leo 
X.  did  not  press  that  claim.  And  the  collision  into 
which  he  was  brought  with  sonie  of  them  was  not  for 
supremacy,  but  for  the  safety  of  Italy.  His  see  was 
restored  to  strength,  not  quite  of  the  same  kind  it  had 
wielded  in  the  13th  century,  but  of  a  kind  apparently 
more  stable  and  peaceful.  Maintaining,  as  he  did, 
manageable  relations  with  the  great  monarchs,  and  enjoy- 
ing a  perfect  agreement  with  them  on  the  subject  of 
religion,  why  should  the  murmurs  of  powerless  dissent- 
ers be  a  cause  of  anxiety?  They  in  fact  occasioned 
none  to  the  gay  and  accomplished  Pope.  From  the  Vati- 
can point  of  view,  the  prospect  was  a  flattering  one,  in 
the  early  years  of  Leo  X.  But  the  expenses  of  the  Papal 
court  were  great,  and  patronage  of  the  arts,  liberal,  and 
the  work  upon  St.  Peter's  involved  an  enornious  addi- 
tional outlay.  To  meet  these  demands  recourse  was  had, 
among  other  devices,  to  an  increased  activity'  in  the  sale 
of  indulgences.  The  method  of  farming  them  out  and 
peddling  them  over  the  countrj^  was  pushed  to  a  degree 
of  recklessness,  which  was  the  more  offensive  as  in  the 
face  of  a  greatly  advanced  popular  intelligence. 

In  the  prosecution  of  that  traffic,  "  Germany  was 
divided  among  three  commissioners.  The  Elector  Albert 
^  of  Mayence,  who  was  also  archbishop  of  Magdeburg, 
assumed  the  chief  management  of  commission  for  his 
own  provinces.  Among  the  venders  of  indulgences 
whom  he  appointed,"  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican  monk, 
made  himself  imprudently  conspicuous.  The  condition 
of  repentence  for  the  sins  pardoned  he  ventured  to 
omit.  Such  was  the  virtue  of  his  indulgences,  that  they 
of  themselves  efl'ected  pardon  of  the  sins  for  which  they 
were  purchased.  It  is  surprising  to  read  of  the  suc- 
cess which  followed  him.  But  there  were  multitudes 
all  over  Germany,  who  were  shocked  by  the  scandalous 
practice. 

Martin  Luther,  an  Augustinian  monk,  and  professor 
and  preacher  at  Wittenberg  in   Electoral  Saxony,  who 


153 

had  already  opposed  himself  to  certain  doctrinal  errors 
of  the  Romish  church,  was  moved  to  condemn  the  whole 
system  of  indulgences,  as  having  no  authority  from  the 
Word  of  God.  An  arduous  spiritual  experience,  an  d 
careful  study  of  Scripture  had  already  given  him  victory 
over  many  of  the  superstitions  of  his  time.  His  dut}' 
was  plain.  He  preached  against  indulgences,  and  warned 
his  people  about  them,  as  an  imposition  upon  their  faith. 
Tetzel  heard  of  it,  and  was  furious  against  the  heretic. 
Luther  was  not  a  man  to  be  intimidated,  or  deterred  from 
taking  the  most  effective  stand  for  the  truth  v»-hich  he 
believed.  On  the  evening  of  the  31st  of  October,  the 
eve  of  the  feast  of  All  Saints,  in  the  year  1517,  a  day  on 
which  all  who  should  attend  church  and  confess,  should 
receive  plenary  indulgence,  Luther  went  and  affixed  to 
the  door  of  the  great  church  of  Wittenberg  a  list  of 
ninety-five  theses  against  indulgences,  Vk'hich  he  announ- 
ced himself  prepared  to  defend  next  day  in  the  univer- 
sity against  all  opposers.  That  act  was  solely  his  own. 
He  committed  no  person  to  responsibility  for  it  but  him- 
self. Going  forward  in  reliance  upon  divine  truth,  and 
fearless  of  danger  in  so  doing,  he  took  a  step  which  how- 
ever simple  in  itself,  became,  from  the  existing  state  of 
the  church,  and  of  the  world,  an  era  in  general  history, 
one  of  those  great  events  by  which  we  mark  the  pro- 
srress  of  mankind. 


154 


FOURTH  PERIOD.     1517  TO   1870. 

When  from  A,  D.  1517,  we  look  into  the  future,  it  is 
not  merely  a  new  stage  in  the  old  controversy  which 
appears  ;  but  a  new  question  has  arisen,  a  new  party  has 
taken  the  field,  and  a  new  aim  is  held  up  before  the 
Christian  world.  That  new  aim  is  to  emancipate  the 
Bible  from  the  restraints  of  ecclesinsticism,  to  maintain 
its  freedom,  and  its  right  to  be  regarded  as  the  only  rule 
of  faith  and  practice.  On  that  subject  professing  Chris- 
tians continue  to  differ.  Men  of  the  world,  to  some 
extent,  take  part  with  one  side  or  the  other,  according  to 
circumstances.  And  the  whole  of  western  Christendom 
is  divided. 

The  Reformation  was  not  the  work  of  a  man,  not 
the  fruit  of  a  single  act  of  daring.  It  was  one  of  the 
steps  of  progress  in  the  work  of  God,  which  had  been 
going  on  in  the  heart  of  the  people  for  three  hundred 
years,  slowly  strengthening  and  unfolding  itself,  in  the 
midst  of  persistent  opposition  from  both  ecclesiastical 
and  civil  authorities,  since  the  first  appearance  of  the 
Cathari  or  Albigenses,  on  the  plains  of  Southern  France. 
It  assumed  its  place  as  a  separate  interest  in  history , 
when  it  could  no  longer  be  suppressed.  Luther  was  one 
'of  the  men  whom  God  raises  up  to  lead  in  such  a  crisis; 
but  so  far  from  the  Reformation  being  created  by  him, 
it  had  long  ago  been  proclaimed  in  England,  and  though 
there  suppressed,  was  silently  biding  a  more  favorable 
time  ;  it  had  already  run  a  course  of  more  than  a  hundred 
years  in  Bohemia,  and  opened  simultaneously  its  career 
in  Switzerland  and  France." 

The  bearing  of  this  new  period  is  the  progress  of  the 
Gospel  towards  perfect  freedom.  Tlie  end  at  which  it 
aims  is  that  state  of  things,  in  which  a  freely  published 
and  preached  Gospel  shall  address  every  man  in  liis  own 
language.  Far  from  being  completed,  the  warfare  is 
still  going  on.     But  the  Reformation  crisis  was  that  in 


155 

which  the  Gospel  burst  the  fetters  of  Mediseval  bondage, 
and  stood  forth  in  its  own  character  before  the  world, 
with  a  power  which  proved  successful  in  maintaining 
itself.  Henceforward  the  history  of  western  Christianit}' 
is  divided  into  different  channels  :  and  yet  there  are  cer- 
tain common  epochs,  which  like  broad  bars,  run  across 
tliem  all. 

The  first  of  those  epochs  occurs  in  the  year  1530, 
when  tlie  Theology  of  the  Reformation  first  received  a 
systematic  shape,  and  the  construction  and  conflict  of 
confessions  began. 

The  next  occurs  in  and  about  1648,  when  the  period 
of  confessions  came  to  an  end;  and  Protestant  nations 
on  the  European  Continent  secured  the  recognition  of 
their  independence. 

A  third  is  marked  by  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution,  a  movement  which  had  as  much  to  do  with 
religion  as  with  politics. 

And  a  fourth  may  perhaps  be  found  in  the  Vatican 
Council  of  1870,  the  effects  of  which  I  believe  are 
destined  to  be  greater  than  have  yet  appeared. 

I.      1517—1530. 

The  Reformation  Crisis.     Reactionary  Papacy. 

Of  tlie  Reformation  the  fundamental  doctrine  was 
justiiication  by  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  that 
from  which  it  revolted  was  justification  by  any  other 
way  :  and  the  ground  on  which  the  Reformers  took  their 
stand  was  that  the  Scriptures  are  the  only  sufficient  rule 
of  faith  and  practice.  By  the  greatly  enlarged  publica- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  many  persons  were  prepared  intel- 
ligentl}'  to  take  that  step,  as  soon  as  a  trusty  leader 
appeared. 

The  period,  brief  as  it  is,  consists  of  different  stages. 

1.  Luther's  attack  upon  indulgences,  and  controversy 
on  that  topic,  as  a  faithful  subject  of  the  Pope,  conducted 
by  public  addresses,  epistles  and  oral  debates. 

2.  Denial  of  the  absolute  power  of  the  Pope,  leading, 
in  course  of  controversy,  to  discussion  of  the  whole 
structure  of  the  Papacy,  issuing  in  Luther's  rejection  of 
Papal  allegiance,  and  appeal  to  a  general  council  :  and 
his  defense  at  the  Diet  of  Worms. 


156 

3.  A  third  stage  was  marked  by  attempts  to  repress 
the  Reformation  by  action  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
courts  ;  and  on  the  side  of  the  Reformers,  to  defend  it 
bj  clear  statements  of  faith,  as  sustained  by  Scripture, 
and  by  careful  instruction  of  the  public  in  the  nature  of 
the  case,  issuing  in  the  great  Diet  at  Augsburg,  and  the 
confession  presented  there  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  the 
publication  of  the  confessions  drawn  up  by  Zvvingle  and 
Oecolampadius  for  Switzerland;  the  earliest  generally 
accepted  confessions  of  the  Protestant  churches. 

1.  In  1516,  while  Luther  was  making  his  incipient 
attacks  upon  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  goods  works, 
Ulrich  Zwingle,  at  Einsiedehi  in  Switzerland  was  preach- 
ing against  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  And  in  1518 
he  dealt  with  Samson  the  vender  of  indulgences,  in  that 
country,  as  Luther  with  Tetzel,  in  Germany.  In  France, 
Brigonnet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  had  already  organized  a 
reformed  cono;reo;ation  of  300  members.  But  Luther 
was  peculiarly  constituted  and  prepared  to  be  the  prin- 
cipal leader  in  that  juncture.  Certain  external  circum- 
stances fiivored  him.  Staupitz,  vicar  general  of  the 
Augustinian  order  for  Germany,  was  a  man  of  kindred 
faith,  and  longer  Christian  experience,  and  was  to  Luther 
an  invaluable  adviser.  Another  staunch  friend  was  the 
Elector  Frederic  of  Saxony,  whose  subject  he  was. 
Thus  encouraged  and  protected,  reformation  work  had 
been  going  on  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  under 
Luther's  iijstructions,  before  the  attack  upon  indulgen- 
ces made  him  known  to  the  general  public. 

Copies  of  the  Theses  against  indulgences  were  put  in 
circulation,  and  rapidly  and  far  dispersed.  Luther  him- 
self sent  one  to  the  Pope.  It  was  reasonable  to  think 
that  Leo,  would  not  justify  such  abuse  of  his  own 
divinely  conferred  prerogative.  Multitudes  were  fully 
prepared  to  welcome  that  declaration.  What  it  expressed, 
they  had  already  been  thinking,  and  with  its  encourage- 
ment, now  felt  free  to  say. 

Luther  went  on    with   his   work.     In   the   month  of 
ISTovember,  he  defended  the  doctrine  of  the   Theses  in  a 
Latin  disputation  for  the  learned,  as  well  as  in  a  vernac- 
ular discourse,  for  the  general  public.     Tetzel  responded. 
And   Prierias,  a  high   official   of  the  Papal  court,  sus- 


157 

tainecl  the  cause  of  indulgences,  on  the  ground  of  the 
infallible  authority  and  absolute  power  of  the  pope. 
Luther,  in  reply,  recognized  no  authority  as  infallible, 
save  that  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  A  new  step  was  thus 
taken  in  the  controversy. 

2.  The  Dominican  monks  concerned  in  the  indul- 
gence business  were  the  principal  parties  in  the  first  step. 
The  Papal  court  might  have  disowned  and  reproved  their 
conduct.  But  now  the  whole  structure  of  the  Papacy 
was  assailed. 

Luther  was  summoned  to  appear  in  Rome  August  7, 
1518.  By  intercession  of  the  Elector  Frederic,  an 
examination  at  Augsburg  was  substituted,  which  took 
place  in  October  of  the  same  year.  Luther  appeared 
there.  Cajetan,  the  Papal  Legate,  demanded  of  him  a 
full  recantation,  without  any  discussion.  To  that  he 
refused  to  submit,  and  appealed  to  the  Pope,  when  the 
Pope  should  be  i>etter  informed  of  the  case.  But  on  the 
9th  of  Nov.,  a  Papal  Bull  was  issued  which  assumed  for  the 
Pope  the  whole  responsibility  for  indulgences,  Luther 
condemned  by  the  Pope,  appealed  to  a  general  council. 

Some  of  the  church  authorities  now  became  alarmed, 
and  attempted  to  stay  the  controversy.  Luther,  when 
appealed  to,  promised  to  observe  silence  on  the  subject, 
if  his  adversaries  would  do  likewise.  He  also  wrote  to 
the  Pope  expressing  his  ecclesiastical  submission,  and 
exalting  the  Romish  see  above  all  except  Christ.  But 
the  controversy  could  not  stop.  Dr.  Eck  of  Ingoldstadt 
continued  to  pursue  it,  in  his  writings,  on  the  Papal 
side.  Between  him  and  Carlstadt,  one  of  Luther's  fel- 
low professors,  a  disputation  took  place  which  lasted 
several  days,  before  a  large  assembly.  By  action  of  his 
opponents,  the  Reformer  was  constrained  to  self-defence. 

It  was  now  that  Philip  Melancthon  entered  the  field 
with  his  treatise,  Defensio  contra  Eckium. 

A  Papal  Bull  was  issued.  June  15,  1520,  condemning 
41  propositions  of  Luther's,  and  commanding  him  to 
confess  his  faults  within  sixty  days.  In  case  he  failed  to 
do  so,  excommunication  was  threated,  and  any  magis- 
trate, who  could  lay  hold  upon  him  was  charged  to  arrest 
and  send  him  to  Rome.  He  replied  with  a  treatise  on 
christian  freedom.     In  July  he  published  his  appeal  to 


158 

the  German  nobles  to   enlist  them  in   the  cause   of  the 
Reformation. 

Seeing  that  now,  with  the  light  he  had  attained,  and 
the  attitude  he  had  been  constrained  to  assume,  he 
could  no  longer  acknowledge  allegiance  to  Rome,  he 
determined  upon  a  public  declaration  to  that  effect. 
Accordingly,  on  the  10th  of  December,  1520,  after  notice 
given,  he  publicl}'  burned  the  Papal  Bull  issued  against 
him,  and  with  it  the  Canon  Law,  and  certain  Decretals 
of  the  Popes.  This  was  Luther's  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, which  he  also  abundantly  maintained  with  his 
pen. 

From  Dec.  10,  1520  the  Reformation  stands  by  itself 
a  separate  interest  in  the  church. 

3.  The  truths  proclaimed  hy  the  Reformers  of  Saxony 
and  Switzerland  were  I'eadily  recognized  where  the  good 
seed  had  been  sown  by  W^-clift'  and  his  followers  ;  and 
by  the  longsuffering  church  of  the  United  Brethren  in 
Moravia  and  Bohemia,  who  hailed  the  reformation  with 
rejoicing,  and  sent  a  delegation  to  Luthei-,  to  express 
their  fraternal  sympathy  and  approval.  They  had  sub- 
sequently frequent  interviews  with  hini.  At  first,  they 
were  not  entirely  in  ac(^ord,  because  of  the  stricter  Bohe- 
mian discipline,  on  one  hand,  and  Luther's  severer 
definition  of  doctrine,  on  the  other.  In  a  few  years  that 
difficulty  was  removed,  and  in  1542,  Luther  gave  their 
delegates  his  hand  as  a  pledge  of  perpetual  friendship. 
In  England,  the  monarch  was  still  the  firm  defender  of 
^the  Romish  faith  ;  but  the  executions  under  his  reign, 
for  conscience  sake,  were  enough  to  prove  that  among 
his  people  there  was  a  sympathy  with  the  evangelical 
cause. 

An  important  element  in  the  course  of  events  is  the 
attitude  towards  the  Reformation  assumed  by  the  secular 
powers,  and  the  condition  in  which  they  then  were  to 
favor  or  resist  it.  The  emperor  Maximilian  died  in  Jan- 
uary 1519,  and  in  July  of  the  same  year,  his  grandson 
Charles  I.  of  Spain  was  elected  to  succeed  him,  and 
thereby  became  Charles  V.  of  the  Empire. 

Accordingly,  in  the  year  1520,  when  Luther  threw 
ofif  the  Papal  yoke,  the  government  of  Europe  was  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  three  men,  Henry  VIII.   of  England, 


159 

Francis  I.  of  France,  and  Charles  V.,  who  now  held  a 
larger  dominion  than  had  ever,  in  Europe,  been  ruled 
by  one  man,  Spain,  Naples  and  other  parts  in  Italy, 
Sicily  and  other  important  islands  in  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Netherlands,  the  German  Empire  with  which  were 
now  connected  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
and  the  hereditary  estates  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and 
all  the  lands  discovered  by  Spanish  navigators  and 
explorers  on  both  continents  of  America  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  eastern  portion  of  his  European  estates  he 
conceded  to  his  brother  Ferdinand. 

All  three  of  these  great  monarchs  were  staunch  sup- 
porters of  the  Romish  Church,  and  within  their  respect- 
ive dominions  prohibited  the  reformation  and  per- 
secuted its  adherents,  Henry  VIII.,  renewing  the  severi- 
ties against  the  people  called  Lollards  of  England,  and 
writing  against  Luther,  Francis  I.,  by  his  concordat  with 
the  Pope,  and  burning  of  Hugenots,  and  Charles  V.,  as 
inhei'iting  the  Spanish  championship  of  Papal  Catholic- 
ism, patronage  of  the  worst  type  of  the  inquisition,  and 
the  command  of  armies  which  were  the  propagandists  of 
Romanism  over  the  world. 

Outside  of  these  monarchies  to  the  east,  the  Ottoman 
Turks  had  reached  the  summit  of  their  success  under  the 
reign  of  Suleyman,  called  the  magnificeut,  who  was  then 
on  the  throne.  Their  empire  bordered  on  that  of  Charles 
v.,  and  their  armies  more  than  once  penetrated  far  into 
the  countries  over  which  his  brother  ruled.  Although 
they  knew  it  not,  those  followers  of  the  false  Prophet 
exerted  no  little  influence  in  helping  forward  the  Christian 
Reformation.  It  was  a  time  of  great  monarchs,  every 
one  of  whom  was  an  enemy  of  evangelical  religion,  and 
on  several  occasions  the  three  of  christian  name  banded 
themselves  together  with  the  Pope  to  destroy  it.  In  no 
period  of  history  are  the  Providential  causes  which 
defeated  an  overwhelmingly  powerful  party,  and  pro- 
tected from  step  to  step,  and  ultimately  gave  victory  to 
the  feebler,  more  wonderful  and  instructive.  The  com- 
pact of  the  King  of  England  and  the  Emperor,  the  treat- 
ies of  the  Emperor,  the  King  of  France  and  the  Pope, 
the  ostentatious  convention  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth 
of  Gold,  proved  to  be  only  bubbles  compared  with  the 


160 

simple  pen-work  of  two  or  three  ministers  of  the  gospel. 

The  first  assembly  of  the  German  States,  after  the 
accession  of  Charles  V.,  '  vvas  summoned  to  meet  at 
Worms,  Jan.  6th,  1521.  It  actually  met  three  months 
later,  attended  by  an  unusual  number  of  princes  and 
nobles,  lay  and  ecclesiastic,  all  desirous  of  presenting 
themselves  before  the  young  Emperor  in  a  style  as  impres- 
sive as  they  could  command.  The  Diet  was  one  of  great 
interest,  as  touching  the  policy  of  the  new  government 
in  general,  but  the  question  of  most  importance  was  that 
of  the  Reformation. 

Aleander,  the  Papal  legate,  called  upon  the  secular 
arm  to  execute  the  recent  Bull  of  excommunication 
against  Luther.  The  Diet,  at  the  instance  of  Frederick 
of  Saxony,  refused  to  proceed  against  him,  without  giv- 
ing him  a  hearing.  On  receiving  a  pledge  of  protection 
from  the  Emperor,  Luther  went  to  Worms :  and  on  the 
17th  and  18th  of  April,  stood  before  the  Diet.  His 
defence  on  that  occasion,  conducted  with  great  learning 
and  prudence,  had  a  most  favorable  effect  upon  his  cause. 
Yet  the  majority  decided  against  him  :  and  the  result  of 
the  deliberations,  as  far  as  he  was  concerned,  was  an 
edict,  condemning  his  doctrines,  and  ordering  the  civil 
authorities  to  arrest  him,  as  soon  as  the  time  of  his  safe 
conduct  had  expired,  and  bring  him  to  punishment.  It 
also  enjoined  the  princes  of  Germany  to  suppress  his 
adherents,  and  confiscate  their  property.  His  works 
were  to  be  destroyed.  And  any  one  acting  contrary  to 
,the  spirit  of  that  decree  was  to  be  laid  under  ban  of  the 
empire. 

4.  The  edict  of  Worms  was  issued  on  the  26th  of 
May.  But  Luther,  whom  it  ordered  to  be  arrested  as 
soon  as  he  arrived  at  Wittenberg,  did  not  succeed  in 
reaching  home,  on  that  occasion.  As  he  was  proceeding 
on  his  journey  through  a  lonely  place,  a  band  of  horse- 
men armed  set  upon  him,  overpowered  his  few  attend- 
ants, seized  him,  threw  over  his  monkish  costume  the 
cloak  of  a  knight,  constrained  him  to  mount  a  led  horse, 
and  dashed  off  with  him  into  the  depths  of  the  Thurin- 
gian  forest.  For  ten  months  Luther  was  lost  to  the  eye 
of  the  public.  And  those  who  wished  his  death  learned 
what  a  commotion  would  have  been   produced  had  the 


161 

sentence  passed  upon  him  been  actual]}^  executed.  He 
was  concealed  by  friends  in  the  castle  of  the  Wartburo;, 
and  spent  his  time  in  study  and  writing.  There  the 
greater  part,  if  not  the  whole  of  his  translation  of  the 
New  TestaiTient  was  made. 

Meanwhile  the  edict  against  him  and  his  fellow- 
reformers  was  not  put  in  execution  anywhere  in  Ger- 
man3%  except  under  the  rule  of  the  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg, the  Duke  of  Bavaria  and  the  Duke  of  Saxon}-, 
and  some  of  the  ecclesiastical  princes,  who  by  their 
exceptional  severity  intensified  the  interest  in  the  Refor- 
mation cause.  The  Emperor  was  prevented  from  taking 
any  part  in  it,  by  the  war,  in  which  he  was  immediately 
involved  with  France  ;  and  his  brother  Ferdinand  was 
entirelv  occupied  with  the  cares  of  defence  against  the 
Turk.  "  .  " 

At  Wittenberg  under  the  leadership  of  Melancthon, 
the  structure  of  the  new  church  order  was  carried  for- 
ward. The  first  systematic  exposition  of  Lutheran  doc- 
trine was  made  in  Melancthon's  "  Loci  communes  Reram 
Theolocjicarum^'"  [tublished  during  Luther's  residence  in 
the  Wartburg. 

But  a  party  arose  at  Wittenberg,  headed  by  Profes- 
sor Bodenstein,  called  of  Carlstadt,  which  carried  the 
new  liberty  to  a  [jcrnicious  extreme.  Disorders  were 
created,  which  the  mild  Melancthon  was  unable  to  reduce. 
Unexpected  by  all,  Lutlier  again  appeared  among  them 
(March  1522).  By  his  prompt  regulative  power,  his 
preaching  and  personal  presence,  people  were  won  back 
to  a  peaceable  prosecution  of  church  work  in  the  orderly 
unfolding  and  practical  effect  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
His  translation  of  the  Xew  Testament  was  published 
the  same  year.  Two  years  afterwards  the  whole  Bible 
was  presented  to  the  public  in  the  German  language,  by 
rendering  directly  from  the  Greek  and  Hebrew. 

Disorders,  provoked  by  long  continued  oppression, 
and  conducted  by  injudicious  men,  broke  out  about  that 
time,  especially  an  insurrection  in  Southern  Germany, 
called  the  Peasant's  war.  At  the  battle  of  Frankenhausen, 
in  1525,  its  strength  was  broken  by  an  overwhelming 
Catholic  force. 

From   1521   to  1530,  the  Reformation   in   Germany 


162 

having  assumed  a  separate  ground,  but  without  a  com- 
plete statement  of  its  principles,  was  invoh'ed  in  contro- 
versies on  every  side.  It  still  looke:!  for  reconciliation 
witli  tlie  Catholic  Church,  through  action  of  a  council. 
And,  with  a  view  to  that,  various  were  the  conventions 
held  for  statement  of  doctrine  and  of  grievances.  The 
Emperor  Maximilian  had  drawn  up  a  list  often  grounds 
of  complaint  in  Germany  against  Rome.  These,  after- 
wards increased  to  one  hundred,  were  presented  to  the 
Diet  of  Worms,  and  under  the  name  of  the  Oentum 
Gravamina,  went  to  justity  the  cause  of  the  Reformation 
with  many,  who  otherwise  would  have  taken  no  interest 
in  it. 

Leo  X.  died  on  the  1st  of  December,  1521,  and  was 
succeeded  Ijy  Hadrian  VI.,  a  pious  man,  who  recognized 
the  existence  of  evils  in  the  church,  and  promised  to 
remove  them,  while  he  demanded  the  execution  of  the 
Edict  against  the  heresy  of  Luther.  He  died  Sept.  14, 
1523.  Clement  YII.  also  made  promise  of  satisfying  the 
complaints  of  (iermany,  provided  the  Edict  were  put  in 
execution.  A  Diet  was  held  at  Nuremberg  in  1522-3  and 
another  in  1524.  At  the  first,  the  legate  of  Hadrian 
made  that  demand,  at  the  secimd  the  legate  of  Clement. 
But  the  Emperor,  in  the  exi3ting  condition  of  his  affairs 
could  not  undertake  it,  and  most  of  the  German  states 
were  opposed  to  it. 

Ij'rederick  the  wise  died  May  5,  1525.  His  Brother 
John,  a  sincere  christian  and  friend  of  Luther,  came  into 
^his  place,  and  consistently  sustained  the  cause.  Several 
important  additions  were  made  to  the  adherents  of  the 
Reformation  about  that  date,  of  whom  the  most  import- 
ant were  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  Albert  of  Bran- 
denburg, Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  who  in 
1525,  took  his  place  as  Duke  of  Prussia,  and  with  his 
people  and  their  bishops  joined  the  Reformatic^n. 

Another  Diet  in  reference  to  the  subject  was  held  at 
Dessau  in  July  1525,  where  the  purpose  of  the  Roman- 
ists appeared  so  threatening  that  the  Reforming  princes 
and  states  entered  into  a  league  for  their  common  defence. 
It  was  formed  at  Torgau  in  May  following.  The  war 
between  France  and  Spain  had  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the 
former,  and  capture  of  Francis  I.  at  the  battle  of  Pavia, 


163 

1525.  In  the  treaty,  whereby  he  was  liberated,  hostility 
to  the  Reformation  was  one  of  the  conditions.  That 
treaty  was  made  January,  1526.  The  league  of  Torgau 
was  only  a  prudent  precaution.  Yet  ere  it  had  occasion 
to  operate,  Providence  interposed  in  a  more  effective 
manner.  A  new  war  arose,  in  which  Francis  I.  and  the 
Italian  nobles,  with  the  Pope  at  their  head,  arrayed 
themselves  against  the  Emperor  in  the  Holy  League  of 
Cognac,  formed  May  22,  1526.  An  invasion  of  the 
Turks  alarmed  the  Empire  and  Hungary  on  the  east, 
where  the  disastrous  battle  of  Mohacs  was  fought,  and 
Louis,  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  was  slain,  August 
29,  1526.  In  May  of  next  year,  an  imperial  army  took 
Rome  by  storm,  and  for  several  months  the  Pope  was  a 
prisoner,  in  the  hands  of  Charles  V. 

Protection  was  thus,  for  about  three  years,  afforded 
to  the  reformers,  without  any  extraordinary  effort  on 
their  part.  They  availed  themselves  of  the  favorable 
opportunity  to  put  into  fitting  order  the  ecclesiastical 
institutions  of  their  respective  countries.  Leaders  in 
that  work  were  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  the 
Elector  John  of  Saxony.  The  schools  were  put  in  a 
state  of  efficiency,  and  the  University  of  Wittenberg  was 
at  the  height  of  its  prosperity.  That  of  Marburg,  in 
Hesse,  w^as  founded  in  L527. 

By  1529  the  Reformation  was  already  established  in 
several  states  of  Germany.  A  Diet,  which  met  in  Spires 
in  that  year,  ordered  that  the  Edict  of  Worms  should  be 
enforced,  wherever  the  Reformation  was  not  sanctioned 
by  law.  Against  that  act  six  Princes  and  fourteen  cities 
presented  a"  protest,  April  19th,  1529.  Hence  the  name 
Protestant  came  to  be  applied  to  all  who  agreed  in  car- 
rying forward  the  reformation  then  in  hand. 

The  Emperor,  again  successful  in  war,  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  Pope  at  Barcelona,  June  29,  1529,  and 
with  France,  the  Peace  of  Cambray,  August  5,  of  the 
same  year ;  and  in  February  following  was  crowned 
Emperor,  and  King  of  Lombardy.  He  had  summoned 
a  Diet  to  meet  at  Augsburg,  in  which  the  religious  dis- 
sensions of  Gerinany  were  to  be  finally  disposed  of. 
Protestants  felt  that  they  must  be  prepared  with  a  com- 
plete, precise  and  summary  statement  of  their  doctrines. 


164 

In  compliance  with  that  exigency,  the  articles  of  Torgau 
were  drawn  up  by  Luther,  Melancthon,. Jonas  and  Bugen- 
hagen.  Attempts  were  made  to  unite  the  Lutheran  with 
the  Reformed  of  Switzerland  in  confession  of  doctrine,, 
which  proved  ineft'ectuaj,  chiefly  from  diflerencc  of  belief 
touching  the  Lord's  Supper. 

The  Elector  of  Saxony  took  with  hirn  to  Augsburg 
Melancthon  and  three  other  eminent  theologians.  Luther 
could  not  safely  leave  the  protection  of  Saxony.  While 
waiting  at  Augsburg  for  the  arrival  of  the  Emperor, 
Melanctlion  made  good  use  of  the  time,  in  con)posing  a 
more  complete  confession,  which  was  the  one  read  before 
the  Diet,  on  the  25th  of  June,  L530.  A  confutation  was 
prepared  by  Dr.  Eck,  and  read  on  the  3rd  of  August. 
An  apology  for  the  confession  in  reply  to  Eck  was  also 
written  by  Melancthon,  and  subsequently  published.  A 
committee  was  also  appointed  to  negotiate  a  reconcilia- 
tion between  the  parties.     But  nothing  came  of  it. 

Four  free  cities,  Constance,  Strasburg,  Memmingen 
and  Lindau,  presented  a  separate  confession,  which  was 
called  the  Tetrapolitan.  The  Reformed  of  Switzerland 
had  also  a  confession  prepared  for  that  occasion,  but  as 
they  did  not  belong  to  the  Empire,  it  was  not  called  for. 

The  final  decree  of  the  Diet  granted  to  Protestants 
until  April  15,  1531,  for  consideration,  and  threatened 
violence,  if  they  did  not  submit  cy  that  time. 

5.  In  Switzerland  the  progress  of  Reformation  was 
more  rapid  than  in  Germany,  but  completeness  of  doc- 
trinal statement  was  not  attained  so  soon.  In  Basil 
the  sentiment  produced  b}^  the  general  council  seems  to 
have  retained  its  hold  upon  some  leading  minds,  through 
the  rest  of  the  15th  century.  In  the  first  years  of  the 
16th  we  find  some  of  the  professors  and  students  in  the 
University  earnestly  enlisted  in  the  cause  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal reform  ;  among  whom  Thomas  Wyttenbach  was 
distinguished  as  early  as  1505.  Capito,  Hedio,  Erasmus, 
and  others  of  like  spirit,  were  students,  teachers  or  resi- 
dents there  prior  to  1517.  Their  attitude,  in  those  days, 
was  the  prelin'iinary  one,  in  which  men  expected  the 
church  to  reform  itself  by  means  of  its  own  authorities; 
and  was  comparatively  safe.  Some  of  them  never  went 
further. 


165 

From  Wyttenbach,  Ulrich  Zvvingle  received  his  first 
theological  directioM.  Ten  years  of  a  quiet  pastorate  in 
the  heart  of  the  Alps,  at  Glarns,  during  which  time  he 
made  himself  well  acquainted  with  the  Greek  New  Tes- 
tament, wrought  full  conviction  in  his  heart  that  the 
Scriptures  are  the  sole  and  sufiicient  standard  of  religion. 
In  1516,  he  was  induced  to  reside  as  priest  and  preacher 
at  Einsiedeln,  where  he  began  to  encounter  some  of  the 
prevailing  errors.  Einsiedeln  was  the  seat  of  a  favorite 
shrine  of  the  Virgin  Marj.  Multitudes  of  pilgrims 
flocked  there  to  pay  their  devotions.  Zwingle  was 
moved  with  compassion  for  them,  and  preached  against 
the  popular  delusion.  Christ,  he  told  them,  alone  can 
save  from  sin  ;  and  his  atonement  satisfies  for  all  believ- 
ers in  all  places  alike.  In  1518  he  opposed  the  sale  of 
indulgences  in  Switzerland,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  that  abuse  withdrawn.  The  same  year  he  was 
elected  preacher  in  the  great  church  of  Zurich  where  in 
order  to  promote  the  knowledge  of  Scripture  among 
the  people,  he  adopted  the  method  of  explaining  certain 
books  of  the  New  Testament  in  regular  course.  The 
method  proved  attractive,  and  large  congregations 
attended  his  preaching.  The  excitement  about  Luther 
at  that  date,  caused  Zwingle  to  be  also  suspected  of 
heresy.  He  did  not,  however,  enter  the  polemical  arena 
of  the  Reformation  until  1522,  when  his  treatise  on  the 
obligation  of  fasting  appeared.  By  that  time,  several 
other  Swiss  preachers  were  pursuing  a  similar  course. 
In  May  of  that  year,  the  Bishop  of  Constance  issued  a 
pastoral  letter  to  warn  all  against  innovation  ;  and  the 
Diet  of  Lucerne  forbade  preaching  likely  to  produce  dis- 
quiet. A  brisk  controversy  ensued,  but  lasted  only  a 
few  years  before  Zurich  and  several  other  cantons  took 
their  stand  clearl}'  and  fully  for  the  Reformation,  as 
taught  by  their  own  preachers.  A  conference  between 
the  reformers  and  the  Romish  theologians  was  invited 
by  the  council  of  Zurich,  and  took  place  in  January 
1523.  On  that  occasion,  the  couiicil  was  so  well  pleased 
with  Zwingle's  defence  of  the  doctrines  he  preached,  that 
they  charged  him  to  persevere  in  his  course,  and  recom- 
mended their  other  preachers  to  follow  his  example.  All 
excesses  were  wisely  held  in   check,  and   the  work  pro- 


166 

gressed  quietly,  but  steadily.  One  after  another,  all 
objects  and  usages  of  superstition  disappeared  ;  "  the 
monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  ciianged  into  schools 
and  almshouse."  The  change  in  public  worship  was 
completed  by  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  its 
original  simplicity,  on  the  13th  of  April,  1525,  in  the 
great  minster  of  Zurich. 

Meanwhile  several  other  cantons  were  pursuing  a 
similar  course,  at  one  stage  and  another,  and  some  were 
hesitating.  A  disputation  held  at  Berne  in  January 
1528,  decided  the  government  of  that  canton  to  accept 
the  Reformation  ;  and  other  cantons,  which  had  been 
wavering,  followed  that  example. 

The  confederation  was  fortliwith  divided,  the  northern 
and  western  cantons  being  chiefly  Protestant,  and  those 
on  the  eastern  and  southern  side  remaining  attached  to 
the  Catholic  religion.  Each  group  sought  their  respect- 
ive alliances,  the  latter  witli  Austria,  and  the  former  with 
Strasburg  and  Ilesse,  carrying  the  Reformed  alliance 
down  the  Rliine.  At  that  juncture  occurred  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg.  Zwingle  was  not  present  at  that  assembly, 
but  prepared  about  that  time  his  Ratio  Fidei,  for  the 
Emperor,  and  his  Expositio  Fldei  Ohristia7iae,i'or'  the  King 
of  France.  And  G]colampadius,  who  was  present,  drew 
up  that  confession,  which  although  not  read  before  the 
Diet,  was  afterwards  the  basis  of  the  first  Basil  Confes- 
sion. 

The  great  point  of  diiierence  between  the  Saxon  and 
♦Helvetic  Reformers  was  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Luther  taught  that  the  real  body  of  Christ  is 
present  with  the  Sacramental  bread,  but  does  not  take 
its  place.  Zwingle  denied  that  to  be  the  meaning  of 
Scripture,  and  interpreted  the  Lord's  words  as  institut- 
ing a  memorial  oi'dinance,  in  which  his  people,  in  par- 
taking of  bread  and  wine,  should  apprehend  his  body 
and  his  blood,  which  those  signified,  as  actually  broken 
and  shed  for  them,  and  thereby  receive  through  faith, 
the  real  blessing  of  the  Lord's  Sacrifice. 

The  Tretrapolitan  Reformers  stood  on  a  difl'erent 
ground  from  both,  and  mediate  between  the  two;  but 
nearer  to  the  Lutheran  side,  to  which  they,  not  long 
afterwards,  passed  over,  by  the  Wittenberg  Concord  of 


167 

1536.  Of  that  connection  the  leadina:  theologian  was 
Martin  Bucer. 

In  the  year  succeeding  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  the 
Catholic  cantons  of  Switzerland  made  war  on  Zurich, 
and  a  battle  was  fought  at  Cappel,  Oct.  11,  1531,  in 
which  the  forces  of  Zurich  were  defeated,  and  Zwingle, 
who  had  gone  out  to  attend  to  the  wounded  and  dying, 
was  slain.  The  death  of  CEcoIanipadius  followed  soon 
after,  Nov.  23,  of  the  same  year. 

Among  the  men  of  that  time  the  most  singly  and 
directlj^  (Scriptural,  and  the  most  fully  emancipated 
thereby  from  long  prevailing  superstition,  was  Ulrich 
Zwingle. 

n.     1530—1648. 
Confessions  and   Religious  Wars. 

From  the  date  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  until 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  the  history  of  the  church  in 
Germany  consists  of  three  periods  :  one,  in  which  the 
parties  labored  in  attempts  to  convince  each  other,  or  so 
to  frame  a  creed  that  they  might  agree  upon  it ;  the 
second  was  a  period  of  compromise,  commencing  with 
the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg,  in  1555,  and  extend- 
ing to  1618;  and  the  third,  beginning  with  the  latter 
date,  was  one  of  open  war,  which  did  not  come  to  an 
end,  until  after  the  lapse  of  thirty  years. 

In  view  of  the  final  decree  of  Augsburg,  the  Protest- 
ants of  Germany,  having  no  intention  to  submit,  began 
to  prepare  for  the  encounter  of  force.  The  league  of 
Smalcald  was  formed  March  29,  1531,  and  soon  after- 
wards strengthened  by  alliance  with  Bavaria,  and  with 
the  king  of  France,  both  of  whom  entered  into  that 
relation  for  political  reasons.  More  cordial  was  the  alli- 
ance with  Denmark.  The  threat  of  Augsburg  came  to 
nothing.  Next  year,  (July  23,  1532)  the  Religious 
Peace  of  Nuremberg  provided  that  religious  matters 
should  remain  as  they  were  until  settled  by  a  council  or 
a  new  diet. 

The  Augsburg  confession  proclaimed  the  doctrines 
of  the  Lutheran  church,  and  prepared  the  way  for  large 
addition    to   the   number  of  its  adherents.     It  became  a 


168 

standard  of  Lutheran  doctrine,  and  gave  union  and  har- 
mony to  the  vvliole  Lutheran  Heforniation  ;  but  it  also 
determined  the  ditterence  between  tliat  communion  and 
the  lieformed  ;  the  latter  name  being  applied  to  all  who, 
in  various  countries,  coincided  with  the  views  of  the 
Swiss  Reformers. 

From  the  two  centres,  thus  constituted  in  Electoral 
Saxony  and  Western  Switzerland,  the  influences  of 
Reformation  spread  rapidly  in  all  directions.  Tlie  Saxon 
form  of  doctrine  was  soon  accepted  in  central  and  north- 
ern Germany,  in  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway,  har- 
monized with  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren,  and 
gained  considerable  numbers  in  Hungary.  Several  of 
the  Gernum  States  down  the  Rhine  from  Basil  and  fol- 
lowing that  line  northward  between  the  centre  of  Ger- 
many and  the  Netherlands,  as  fa)-  as  the  German  sea, 
accepted  Reformed  doctrine.  Such  also  became  the 
creed  of  Protestants  in  the  Netherlands,  in  France,  in 
England,  in  Scotland,  and  of  the  Magyar  population  in 
Hungary. 

Though  differing  to  some  extent  in  doctrine,  these 
two  grand  divisions  of  the  Protestant  connection  sup- 
ported each  other  in  their  common  defence  against 
violence. 

The  severity  which  Charles  V.,  never  felt  himself  in 
condition  to  exercise  upon  the  Protestants  of  Germany, 
he  exemplified  in  his  hereditary  estates  in  the  Nether- 
lands. There  had  risen  the  school  of  Gerard,  and  there 
,had  flourished  the  evangelical  agencies  which  proceeded 
from  it.  John  Wessel  of  Groningen  anticipated  almost 
every  doctrine  afterwards  defended  by  Luther.  That  he 
died  in  peace,  1489,  was  due  to  the  protection  of  the 
pious  bishop  of  Utrecht,  who  also  ought  himself  to  be 
named  amongthe  forerunners  of  the  Reformation.  At  first 
Lutheranism  was  accepted,  but  soon  exchanged  for  the 
Reformed  doctrine,  which  has  retained  its  ground.  In 
the  Netherlands  was  the  first  blood  shed  for  the  cause, 
in  the  martyrdom  of  Henry  Voes  and  John  Lsch  at  Brus- 
sels, July  1,  1523.  From  that  date  persecution  con- 
tinued in  those  provinces  through  all  the  reign  of 
Charles  V.,  and  with  more  terrible  infatuation  under  his 
successor  Philip  11. 


169 

Between  1532  and  1538,  the  Protestant  cause  was 
greati}'  strenfcthened  by  the  accession  of  Wiirtemberjy,  of 
Pomerania,  of  the  Count  Palatine,  the  Princes  of  Anhalt, 
William  of  Nassau,  and  many  free  cities,  as  well  as  the 
kingdoms  of  Denmark  (1536)  and  Norway,  (1537). 
Meanwhile  urgent  and  repeated  application  had  been 
made  by  the  Emperor  to  the  Pope  to  call  the  council,  to 
whicli  Protestants  had  appealed,  and  which  was  expected 
by  man\'  to  bring  about  a  satisfiictory  settlement  of  all 
differences.  The  Popes  had  deferred  that  action,  until 
the  work,  which  it  might  have  done  in  the  beginning, 
was  no  longer  practicable;  and  until  the  Protestants  no 
longer  took  much  interest  in  it.  A  Bull  was  issued  con- 
voking the  council  at  Mantua.  With  a  view  to  it, 
Luther  drew  up  a  statement  of  his  views,  which  was 
accepted  by  the  Protestant  League  at  Smalcald,  in  Feb- 
ruar\%  1537.  It  is  known  as  the  Smalcald  articles. 
The  council  did  not  meet. 

July  10,  1538,  the  Holy  League  was  formed  at 
Nuremberg  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  the  Imperial 
autliorities  in  carrying  the  Edict  of  Augsburg  into  exe- 
cution. War  between  the  two  parties  seemed  to  be 
inevitable.  But  at  that  juncture  the  Turk  again  threat- 
ened the  eastern  borders  of  the  empire.  Peace  must  be 
kept  with  the  Protestants  some  time  longer.  Imperial 
negotiations  with  them,  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  1539, 
resulted  in  suspending  all  proceedings  against  them  for 
eighteen  months. 

After  the  termination  of  the  Frankfort  suspension, 
various  other  diets  and  conferences  were  held  to  settle 
the  differences  of  opinion  ;  but  without  effect.  The 
urgently  demanded  council  at  last  assembled  at  Trent, 
Dec.  13,  1545.  At  that  juncture,  Luther  died  at  Eisle- 
ben,  the  place  of  his  birth,  February  16,  1546.  Very 
soon  it  became  plain  that  the  council  would  not  answer 
the  end  for  which  it  was  called,  that  its  purpose  was  not 
to  conciliate  but  to  condemn  the  Protestants.  The 
Emperor  opened  a  conference  at  Ratisbon,  Jan.  27,  1546. 
That  also  failed.  And  feeling  now  in  condition  to  apply 
force,  he  undertook  to  make  a  reformation  on  his  own 
terms,  which  Protestants  were  to  be  constrained  to  accept. 
They  resisted  ;  but  their  confederation,  called  the  Smal- 


170 

cald  League,  conducted  the  war  feebly,  and  was  constrain- 
ed to  submit.     At  a  Diet  opened  by  the  Emperor  at  Augs- 
burg Sept.  1547,  a  compromise  between  the  Catholic  and 
Protestant  religions  was  agreed  upon,  as  an  Interim,  or 
temporary  measure,  until  the  action  of  a  proper  council 
could   be   obtained.      Though   accepted   by  some  of  the 
Protestant  princes,  by  the  states  and  populations  gener- 
ally it  was  condemned.     But  military  force  imposed  it. 
In  a  few  months,  pure  Protestantism  was  suppressed  in 
Germany,     The  city  of  Magdeburg  alone  maintained  it. 
That  success  of  the  Imperial  arms  was  brought  to  a 
sudden   termination.     Maurice    of  Saxony    who    a    few 
years  before  had  deserted  the  Protestant  league,  to  join 
the  Emperor,  and  was  trusted  with  command  of  a  large 
force,  becoming  disgusted  with  the   service  in  which  he 
was  employed,  and  indignant  at  the  Imperial  despotism, 
suddenly  turned  from  Magdeburg,  which  he  had  been 
sent  to  reduce,  and  directed  his  arms  against  his  master. 
Charles  lay  sick  at  Inspruck,  and  learned   of  his  danger 
only  in  time  to  escape  capture  by  a  rapid  flight.     He  was 
constrained   (Aug.   2d,  1552)   to   sign    a  treaty  granting 
freedom  of  religion  to  the  Protestant  States,  until  a  new 
council   could  be  convened.     Maurice   also  secured  the 
co-operation  of  the  King  of  France,  who  prosecuted  the 
war    by    invading   the    Emperor's    possessions    in     the 
Netherlands.       It   was   at    some    sacrifice    that    Charles 
secured   a   not  dishonorable  peace  with  his  enemies  on 
all  sides.     The  act  of  settlement  for  Germany  was  con- 
cluded at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  Sept.  25,  1555,  in  grant- 
ing to  the  Protestant  religion,  without  limitation  of  time, 
a  recognized  place,  and  to  the  German  states  freedom  of 
choice  between   the   two  religions.       One   month  later, 
Charles  V.  abdicated  the  throne  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
a  few  weeks  afterwards  that  of  Spain  with  all  its  depen- 
dencies, in  favor  of  his  son  Philip.     The  crown  of  the 
empire    he   retained   six   months  longer.     But  when  he 
had    transferred   all   his  claims  of  allegiance  from  Ger- 
many to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  the  greatest  monarch  of 
his  age  withdrew  from  public  life,  and  sunk  himself  in 
a  monastery.     Although   courtesy,  as  long   as  he  lived, 
still  made  use  of  his  august  name,  he  never  again  appeared 
in  the  world. 


171 

2.  Freedom  of  religious  profession  was  allowed,  by 
the  Peace  of  Augsburg,  only  to  governments.  The 
people  were  expected  to  follow  the  religion  selected  for 
them  by  their  rulers,  although  they  were  free  to  remove 
to  a  state  where  that  of  their  choice  was  established.  It 
was  further  fettered  by  a  stipulation  that  every  prince 
prelate,  passing  over  to  the  cause  of  Protestantism,  should 
lose,  with  his  ecclesiastical  prerogatives,  also  his  tem- 
poral power  and  dominion.  But  for  this  ecclesiastical 
reservation,  it  is  thought  that  almost  all  GermanjMvould 
have  become  Protestant.  The  Emperors  Ferdinand  I. 
and  Maximilian  II.  respected  the  peace,  and  made  hon- 
orable efforts  to  hold  the  balance  fairly  between  the  two 
parties.  And  several  additions  were  made  to  the  num- 
ber of  Protestant  states. 

After  the  death  of  Luther,  the  divisions  of  opinion, 
which  had  existed  before,  among  the  theologians  of  his 
connection  greatl}^  increased.  Melancthon  had  modified 
their  theology  on  some  points,  such  as  the  agency  of 
man  in  conversion,  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  the  for- 
mer, though  he  denied  all  merit  to  man,  yet  he  held  to 
a  certain  co-operation  of  human  free  will  ;  and  respect- 
ing the  latter  he  took  a  middle  ground  between  the  Cal- 
vinistic  and  Lutheran.  The  University  of  Wittenberg 
adopted  his  views.  Subsequent!}'  that  of  Jena  was 
founded  in  the  interest  of  strict  Lutheranism.  Various 
other  differences  arose,  which  distracted  theological 
opinion,  for  several  years.  At  last  a  convention  met  at 
Bergen,  near  Magdeburg,  1577,  and  agreed  upon  a  form 
of  Concord,  which  seemed  to  give  general  satisfaction. 
The  Formula  Concordioe  constitutes  the  final  symbol  of 
the  Lutheran  church. 

It  was  in  the  beginning  of  this  period  that  a  new  enemy 
of  the  Protestant  cause  began  to  make  itself  felt  in  the 
controversy.  The  Jesuit  order  received  Papal  sanction 
in  1540,  and  in  1556  Ignatius  Loyola  died,  after  having 
completed  his  system,  and  seen  it  fully  established  in 
practice.  Loyola  was  a  Spanish  soldier,  who  being  dis- 
abled for  military  service  by  wounds,  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  construction  of  a  new  monastic  order  for  the 
specific  purpose  of  defending  the  Papal  cause.  His 
plans  were  gradually  matured  by  the  thinking    of  many 


172 

3'ears  and  assistance  of  colleagues,  among  whom  the  first 
were  Peter  Faber  and  Francis  Xavier. 

The  methods  by  which  the  order,  which  called  itself 
the  society  of  Jesus,  sought  to  obtain  power,  was  by 
popular  preaching,  by  obtaining  the  place  of  confessors 
to  Princes  and  persons  of  high  rank  and  standing  in 
royal  courts,  by  controlling  the  education  of  the  young, 
and  establishing  missions  to  operate  upon  the  rulers  of 
heathen  countries.  The  vows  of  a  professed  Jesuit  are 
those  of  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  and  of  implicit  com- 
pliance with  a  command  of  the  Pope,  to  go  to  any  place 
in  the  world  where  he  may  send  them.  They  are  not 
under  obligation  of  seclusion  from  the  world,  to  practice 
the  ordinary  penances  and  macerations  of  the  body. 
Not  for  asceticism,  but  for  work  is  the  order  constituted. 
The  selection  of  their  men  is  careful,  their  education 
strict,  and  their  probation  searching.  The  first  stage  is 
that  of  novices  on  trial,  second  that  of  scholastics  pursu- 
ing the  education  appointed  them  ;  third,  that  of  coadju- 
tors temporal  and  spiritual,  of  whom  the  former  are  not 
yet  priests,  but  useful  to  the  cause  in  secular  occupations, 
and  the  other  constitute  the  class  from  whom  are  chosen 
the  highest,  or  fourth  grade,  who  are  also  of  two  classes, 
the  professed  of  three  vows  and  the  professed  of  four. 
Their  government  recognizes  successive  ranks  of  sub- 
ordination, and  superiors,  with  mutual  espionage,  and 
the  supreme  authority  is  vested  in  a  general,  elected  by 
the  professed  members,  and  who  serves  for  life. 

In  proportion  as  that  new  order  increased  in  Ger- 
many, so  did  Catholic  violations  of  the  Religious  Peace. 
First  they  succeded  in  suppressing  Protestantism  in 
Bavaria,  and  then  in  winning  other  states  back  to  the  Cath- 
olic connection.  The  Emperor  Rudolph  II.  (1576-1612) 
sustained  the  re-action  with  all  the  \veight  of  his  authority, 
and  in  some  cases  with  force.  As  the  power  of  choosing 
the  state  religion  belonged  only  to  the  rulers,  little 
regard  was  paid  to  the  wishes  of  the  people.  Success 
emboldened  aggression.  Threats  of  entire  suppression 
of  the  Protestant  cause  began  to  be  heard,  and  in  some 
quarters  steps  were  actually  taken  to  that  end. 

A  change  had   also  taken    place  in  the  tone  of  the 
Catholic  church,  as  well  as  of  the  Papacy,  respecting  the 


173 

reformation  needed  within  their  bounds.  Clement  VII, 
died  in  1534.  His  successor,  Paul  III.,  deluded  the 
reforming  party  for  many  years  with  the  promise  of  call- 
ing a  council,  which  should  regulate  the  affairs  of  the 
church  by  proper  authority.  After  many  evasions,  he 
finally  called  the  council,  which  met  at  Trent,  Dec.  13, 
1545.  In  1547,  he  removed  it  to  Bologna,  and  soon  after 
caused  it  to  be  adjoarned.  From  the  first,  the  Protest- 
ants perceived  that  it  was  to  be  a  mere  Papal  agency,  and 
declined  taking  any  part  in  it.  In  Nov.  1549,  Paul  III. 
died.  Julius  III.,  at  the  instance  of  Charles  V.,  reopened 
the  council.  May  1st,  1551,  but  closed  it  in  April  1552. 
After  liis  death  in  1555,  Marcellus  reigned  only  23  days; 
and  was  followed  b\-  Paul  IV.,  who,  having  been  long  at 
the  head  of  the  inqusition  in  Rome,  entered  upon  his 
pontificate  in  the  spirit  of  stern  hostility  to  all  measures 
of  reform,  and  with  a  determination  to  carry  to  the 
utmost  possible  extreme  the  temporal  and  spiritual 
supremacy  of  the  Papal  office.  During  all  his  reign 
(1555-1559)  the  council  was  not  called.  By  the  next 
Pope  Pius  IV.,  it  was  re-asserabled  January  18,  1562,  and 
was  more  numerously  attended  than  before,  but  its  acts 
were  of  less  importance:  and  neither  then  nor  before 
did  it  effect  anything  to  meet  the  demand  which  had  first 
brought  it  together.  It  however  clearly  defined  the 
position  of  Romanism  as  over  against  that  of  the  Prot- 
estants ;  and  made  manifest  the  fact  that  reconciliation 
was  impracticable.  It  was  finally  dissolved  on  the  4th 
of  December,  1563.  In  all,  its  sessions  had  covered 
about  four  years  and  seven  months.  Indulgences,  and 
all  the  doctrines  out  of  which  they  spring,  and  by  which 
they  are  justified,  were  fully  sustained  by  the  council, 
and  the  practice  of  dispensing  them  defended,  while  the 
recklessness  which  had  brought  the  sale  of  them  into 
disrepute  was  censured.  They  were  to  be  dispensed,  not 
for  gain,  but  for  piety.  The  works  of  the  council  of 
Trent  appear  in  the  form  of  canons,  and  a  catechism  for 
the  instruction  of  priests.  And  after  its  final  adjourn- 
ment, Pius  IV.  issued  a  profession  of  faith,  in  which  he 
summed  up  the  results  of  what  it  had  done,  and  added 
to  the  Nicene  creed  a  series  of  articles,  which  he  pro- 
nounced part  of  the  true  and  Catholic  faith,  out  of 
which  no  one  can  be  saved. 


174 

From  the  close  of  the  council  of  Trent,  the  demand 
for  reform  in  the  Romish  church  fell  into  disrepute,  and 
the  reaction  against  it  continued  to  gain  strength,  until 
the  very  name  of  reformation  was  held  equivalent  to 
heresy.  For  that  change  the  Catholic  church  is  indebted 
chiefly  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  the  Jesuit  Order, 
which  at  the  death  of  its  founder  in  1556,  consisted  of 
one  thousand  active  agents,  and  one  hundred  religious 
houses,  divided  into  twelve  provinces,  reaching  to  the 
East  Indies,  on  one  side,  and  to  Brazil  on  the  other.  It 
soon  became  a  mighty  engine,  no  less  powerful  among 
the  politics  of  princes,  than  in  the  propaganda  of  Roman- 
ism. 

Within  the  same  period,  the  different  churches  of 
the  Reformed  connection  on  the  continent  had  also 
matured  their  doctrinal  symbols. 

In  1535  and  1536,  Geneva,  sustained  by  the  canton  of 
Berne  succeeded  in  wresting  her  independence  from  her 
Bishop  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  in  uniting  with  the 
Protestant  confederation  of  Switzerland.  Her  reform- 
ers, Farel  and  Viret,  were  in  1536,  joined  by  Calvin,  who 
had  already  published  the  first  edition  of  his  Institutes 
of  Theology.  For  the  strictness  of  their  discipline  they 
were  all  banished  from  the  city.  Farel  subsequently 
labored  in  Neuchatel,  and  Viret  in  Lausanne.  Calvin 
was  recalled  in  1541  by  the  urgent  entreaty  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Geneva,  with  the  promise  that  they  would  accept 
the  religious  government  which  he  proposed.  Under 
the  regulations  thus  established,  Geneva  became  the 
head  of  the  Helvetic  Reformation,  and  the  Seminary  of 
Reformed  doctrine.  After  the  death  of  Calvin,  May 
27,  1564,  that  reputation  and  standing  was  maintained 
by  Beza  and  other  eminent  scholars  and  divines. 

In  France  the  Reformed,  under  severe  repression  and 
sometimes  the  most  cruel,  persecution,  continued  to 
increase  in  uumber;  and  in  1559  drew  up  their  confes- 
sion consistent  with  the  doctrines  taught  in  Geneva. 
Their  cause  was  sustained  by  the  Prince  of  Conde,  the 
Admiral  Coligny,  and  the  Queen  of  Navarre,  and  later, 
by  her  daughter,  and  then  by  her  gandson,  Henry,  King 
of  Navarre^  At  the  head  of  the  Catholic  party  stood 
the   ducal  house  of  Loraine,   and   the  royal    family   of 


175 

France,  led  by  the  policy  of  Catherine  de  Medici,  wife  of 
Henry  II.,  and  mother  of  the  three  next  successive  Kings. 
After  repeated  wars,  a  marriage  of  the  young  King  of 
Navarre  and  the  sister  of  King  Charles  IX.,  was  nego- 
tiated as  a  means  of  securing  peace.  Great  numbers  of 
Protestants  assembled  in  Paris  to  honor  the  nuptials  of 
their  leader.  According  to  arrangements  previously  con- 
certed, chiefly  by  the  Queen  Mother,  they  were  attacked 
on  the  night  of  the  24  th  of  Aug.  1572,  and  murdered  to  the 
number  of  many  thousands.  The  orders  were  extended 
to  the  provinces,  where  they  were  also  obeyed.  But  so 
far  from  being  exterminated,  the  Reformed  of  France 
rallied  around  the  King  of  IS'avarre,  and  carried  him  in 
victory  to  the  walls  of  Paris,  when  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  France,  1589,  and  in  the  hope  of  uniting  both 
parties,  deserted  his  friends  by  professing  the  creed  of 
his  enemies.  He  granted,  however,  to  Protestants,  equal 
rights  with  Catholics,  by  the  edict  of  Nantes,  1598.  His 
own  famil}'  were  subjected  to  Romish  education,  and  the 
real  liberties  of  Protestants  did  not  long  survive  his 
death,  which  occurred  by  assassination  in  1610. 

Among  the  Reformed  of  the  Netherlands  persecution, 
begun  in  the  execution  of  the  first  martj'rs  of  Brussels 
in  1523,  was  continued  with  varying  severity  through 
all  the  reign  of  Charles  V.,  and  under  his  successor 
Philip  II.,  intensified  to  a  degree  which  was  equally 
inhuman  and  insane,  resulting  in  the  reduction  to  pov- 
erty of  a  once  wealthy  dependency,  and  the  complete 
alienation  of  its  allegiance  from  the  throne  of  Spain.  In 
1579,  the  southern  provinces  submitted.  But  the  north- 
ern declared  their  independence.  In  1561  the  Belgic 
confession  was  composed,  presenting  the  same  type  of 
doctrine  as  that  of  Geneva.  On  that  Platform  the 
Republicans  of  the  United  Netherlands  defended  them- 
selves against  the  forces  of  Spain,  and  after  a  long  war, 
wrested  from  their  enemy  the  peace  of  1609.  Then  rose 
the  controversy  with  Arminianism,  leading  to  the  Synod 
of  Dort  in  1618.  Again  the  Provinces  were  involved  in 
a  war  with  Spain,  beginning  from  1621,  in  the  course  of 
which  they  were  brought  into  relations  with  the  Protest- 
ants of  Germany. 

Among    German    Protestants    several    princes    and 


176 

states  passed  over  from  Lutberanisiii  to  the  Reformed 
communion,  such  as  the  Duchy  of  Lippe,  Hesse  Cassel, 
and  the  Hanse  city  of  Bremen.  But  of  all  German 
Reformed  States  most  eminent  was  the  Palatinate,  which 
made  the  change  under  the  Elector  Frederick  III.  in 
1560.  Three  years  afterwards,  under  the  same  Prince, 
the  Heidelberg  catechism  was  published,  whicli  soon 
became  the  common  standard  of  doctrine  for  the  churches 
of  that  connection. 

A  sense  of  the  danger  to  which  they  were  exposed 
by  the  machinations  of  Jesuits,  and  the  spirit  of  perse- 
cution which  was  exhibiting  itself  more  and  more  exten- 
sively, led  the  Protestant  states  of  Germany  to  enter 
into  another  league  for  their  mutual  defence.  Thus  was 
formed  the  Evangelical  Union,  at  Ahausen,  in  May,  1608. 
An  opposing  Catholic  league  was  constituted  in  July  of 
the  next  year,  at  Munich.  At  the  head  of  the  former 
was  the  Elector  Frederick  V.  of  the  Palatinate,  and  of 
the  latter,  Maximilian  of  Bavaria. 

In  Bohemia,  the  Reformers  were  the  most  numerous 
part  of  the  population.  But  the  religious  Peace  was  of 
little  benefit  to  them,  because  they  were  subjects  of  a 
Catholic  German  Prince,  and  dependent  upon  his  strict- 
ness or  liberality.  Upon  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Matthias,  who  had  been  their  King,  the  Bohemians 
resisted  his  successor  on  the  Imperial  throne,  Ferdinand 
IL,  as  being  an  intolerant  Catholic,  and  offered  their 
crown  to  Frederick  V.,  electoral  Prince  of  the  Palatin- 
ate, and  son-in-law  of  James  I.  of  England.  Ferdinand 
pursued  his  claim  by  war,  and  was  supported  by  Spain 
and  the  Catholic  league.  Bohemia  and  the  Palatinate, 
driven  to  self-defence,  looked  for  support  from  the  Evan- 
gelical Union,  and  from  England.  Thus  opened  in  1618 
a  war  which,  though  sometimes  interrupted  for  a  brief 
space,  was  not  brought  to  a  close  until  after  the  lapse  of 
thirty  years,  and  in  the  prosecution  of  which  some  of 
the  finest  portions  of  Germany  were  trodden  into  deso- 
lation. 

3.  The  aid  expected  by  the  Elector  from  England 
proved  so  feeble  as  to  be  deceitful.  The  cause  of  Fer- 
dinand was  victorious  (1620).  Protestant  worship  was 
abolished  in   Bohemia.     The  same  fate   befell  Austria. 


177 

The  lands  of  the  Palatinate  were  seized  by  Spain  and 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria.  The  Evangelical  Union  was 
dissolved,  and  the  first  act  of  the  war  terminated  in  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Catholic  religion  everjwhei-e  by 
force. 

In  1625,  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  Protestants  of 
lower  Saxony,  under  command  of  Christian  IV.,  King 
of  Denmark,  to  resist  that  oppression.  It  also  issued  in 
defeat,  before  the  imperial  forces  under  Tilly  and  Wallen- 
stein.     A    treaty    was    concluded   at   Lubeck,    May    12, 

1629.  The  long  suspended  Edict  was  put  in  execution, 
and  nothing  less  was  contemplated  than  extermination 
of  the  protestant  cause. 

But  the  completeness  of  imperial  success  brought 
about  its  overthrow.  Such  a  preponderance  of  the 
Austrian  Spanish  power  kindled  the  jealousy,  if  not  the 
reasonable  fears  of  France.  The  Italian  princes,  includ- 
ing the  Pope,  from  various  motives  of  local  politics,  sym- 
pathized with  France.  An  alliance  was  accordingly 
formed  by  those  powers  together  with  Sweden  for  the 
purpose  of  pursuing  the  war  more  vigorously,  to  put  a 
check  upon  the  dangerously  overbalancing  weight  of  the 
Hapsburg  dynasty.     The  new^  campaign  opened  June  24, 

1630,  in  the  arrival  of  Gustavus  Adolphns,  King  of 
Sweden,  as  commander  of  the  allied  armies  in  Germany. 
By  his  prudence  and  energy  he  inspired  the  minds  of 
Protestants  with  new  hopes,  which  were  fully  sustained 
by  his  military  success.  On  the  7th  of  September  1631, 
he  fought  a  great  battle,  in  which  he  defeated  Count 
Tilly,  at  Leipsic,  and  cleared  his  way  into  the  heart  of 
Germany.  Early  next  year,  he  again  defeated  the  impe- 
rial forces,  at  the  passage  of  the  Lech,  where  Count  Tilly 
was  slain.  Continuing  his  victorious  march  southward 
he  penetrated  into  Bavaria,  breaking,  as  he  advanced, 
the  fetters,  which  the  Emperor  had  been  so  industriously 
riveting  upon  his  Protestant  subjects.  In  another  great 
battle  at  Liitzen,  Nov.  6,  1632,  he  defeated  the  forces  of 
Wallenstein.  By  these  victories  he  removed  the  oppres- 
sion which  rested  upon  most  of  the  German  states, 
thereby  enlarging  his  own  resources,  as  he  weakened 
those  of  his  enemy.  And,  although  he  fell  in  the  midst 
of  victory,  at  Liitzen,  the  change  he  had  efiected  upon 


178 

the  relative  state  of  the  belligerents  gave  an  advantage 
to  the  cause  he  defended  which  was  retained  to  the  end. 
His  policy  was  pursued  by  the  Swedish  minister  Oxen- 
stiern,  and  the  Swedish  generals  Banier  and  Torstensen, 
and  the  Prince  of  Saxe-Weinier  wrested  repeated  victory 
from  the  imperialist  forces  ;  while  Spain,  already  reduced 
by  her  losses  in  the  Netherlands,  was  humiliated  by  the 
victories  of  the  French  generals,  Conde,  Turenne  and 
others.  It  was  a  long  conflict,  in  which  the  reverses 
were  not  all  on  one  side,  but  which  issued  in  such  decided 
advantage  to  the  Protestant  cause  as  to  constrain  the 
Austrian-Spanish  enemy  to  come  to  reasonable  terras. 
The  Thirty  years  war  closed  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia, 
October  1648. 

By  that  Treaty,  Sweden  and  some  other  Protestant 
states  made  a  gain  of  territory,  and  only  in  Bavaria 
were  the  Catholics  allowed  to  retain  all  the  advantages 
they  had  conquered  in  the  early  part  of  the  war  ;  and  the 
terrible  oppression  of  Bohemia  could  not  be  undone.; 
but  the  principal  gain  was  in  the  establishment  of  equal- 
ity between  Catholic  and  Protestant  states,  in  all  aitairs 
of  the  empire.  As  Holland  had  been  one  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  alliance,  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  extended 
to  both  branches  of  the  Protestant  connection. 

Among  the  Confessions  called  forth  during  this  long 
period  of  conflict  the  most  important  are,  for  the  Lutheran 
church,  Luther's  two  Catechisms,  Longer,  and  Shorter, 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  the  Apology  for  the  Confes- 
sioli,  the  Smalcald  Articles  and  the  Form  of  Concord  ; 
for  the  Reformed,  the  second  Basil  Confession,  or  first 
Helvetic,  Calvin's  Listitutes,  though  not  a  confession, 
yet  having  much  to  do  with  all  the  Reformed  confessions 
which  succeeded,  Consensus  Tigurinus,  by  which  Ger- 
man Switzerland  accepted  Calvin's  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  the  second  Helvetic  Confession,  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism,  the  Gallic  Confession,  the  Belgic  Confession, 
and  the  Confession  and  canons  of  Dort.  And  by  the 
same  date,  the  English  Church  Articles  had  received  their 
final  form,  and  the  work  of  the  Westminster  Assembly 
was  complete. 


